Psychological Theory Of Crime Is The Psychoanalytical Theory

One psychological theory of crime is the psychoanalytical theory. Developed by Freud, this theory suggests that innate desires and repressed emotions are what shapes individual behaviour and are thus the cause of offending behaviours. Freud proposes that the mind is made up of 3 components: the Id, the ego and the superego. The Id is a part of the unconscious mind that we are born with; it is dominated by aggressive drives that are monitored by the ego. The superego, unlike the Id, develops as a result of early social experiences and is the ‘moral guardian’ of an individual. Due to this, criminal behaviour can be seen to be an expression of buried internal conflicts that have resulted due to deprivations experienced at childhood, such†¦show more content†¦Freud’s theory can be seen to be supported by control theory; the idea that we are all born with a natural inclination to violate rules of society ( the animalistic/aggressive nature of the Id) and cr ime results from a failure of others to bond with the individual and teach them not to offend. This is, however, a sociological theory and thus puts forward the question of whether to account fully for offending behaviour whether both psychological and sociological theories needs to be taken into consideration. This disruption of attachment playing a key role is accounting for offending behaviours was emphasized by Bowlby who suggested there was a link between maternal deprivation and anti-social behaviour. He proposed that any rejection or separation between mother and child in early childhood development was highly problematic. This was backed up the ’44 thieves study’ (Bowlby 1944) in which it was reported that 39% of a group of juvenile delinquents had experienced significant disruption to their attachments, compared with just 5% of the non-delinquent group. Although this study does show support for the idea that disruption of attachments and consequently having a weak superego can be significance to explain offending behaviours, it cannot be seen to give concrete evidence to fully account for offending behaviours. 61% of the delinquents had still committed some form of offending behaviour without any disruption to

What Lay Behind the Horrors of the Slave Trade Free Essays

What Lay Behind The Horrors Of The Slave Trade? In this essay I would be examining what lay behind the horrors of the slave trade. This essay will include the countries that were involved in the slave trade, how they benefited from it and the power they had over the enslaved Africans. The slave trade worked in a triangle, between four continents: Europe, Africa, South America and North America. We will write a custom essay sample on What Lay Behind the Horrors of the Slave Trade or any similar topic only for you Order Now Slave ships leave ports like London, Bristol and Liverpool for West Africa carrying manufactured goods like guns, alcohol, iron bars, which are traded for African men, women and children who had been captured by slave traders or bought from African chiefs on the West African coast. From Africa a ship full of slaves leaves to America and the West Indies, where they are sold to the highest bidder and that’s where families are separated. Once they have been bought, after that they belonged to the plantation owner. Some refused to be enslaved and took their live, others run away and pregnant woman preferred to have an abortion than to raise their children into slavery. With the money made from the sale of enslaved Africans, goods such as sugar, coffee and tobacco were bought and taken back to Britain for sale. The ships were loaded with produce from the plantations for the voyage back home. For over 300 years, European countries forced Africans onto slave ships and transported them over the Atlantic Ocean but how did the people back in Britain get involved in the slave trade? As the slave trade grew, numerous of people began to get involved or simply benefited from it. Banks and finance houses in Britain began to grow from the fees and the interest they earned from merchants who borrowed money for their voyages. Bristol and Liverpool became major ports for slave ships, handling cargoes they brought back and between 1700 and 1800, Liverpool’s population dramatically rose from 5,000 to 78,000. Others worked in factories that had been set up with the money from the slave trade. The slave trade also provided various jobs back in Britain, many worked in factories which sold their goods to West Africa, and these goods will then be traded for slaves. Birmingham also included itself by having 4,000 gun makers with 100,000 guns a year People in Britain weren’t the only one who benefited from the slave trade, West African leaders involved in the trade also benefited by capturing and trading Africans to the Europeans because they are the one who got all the manufactured goods that were traded for slaves. The African chiefs were also benefited themselves with all the money that they got from trading Africans. My view is that because of the benefits they had, it means that they were also involved and I think without them the trade wouldn’t of happened because they are the one who captured slave for the Europeans, therefore they made a path for the slave trade to happen. Lastly, the West Indies and the Americans were obviously involved because they are the ones who bought and owned the slaves for their plantations. Plantation owners who used slave labour to grow their crops and the fact that they didn’t have to pay the slave made them vast profits. Often planters retired to Britain with the profits they made and had grand country houses already built for them. Some planter used their money wisely, to become MPs and others invested their profits in new factories and inventions wish helped to finance the Industrial Revolution. I would like to conclude that for me the biggest horrors that lay behind the slave trade is how other African traded their own kind for manufactured goods, how cruelly the Africans were treated on the slave ships and plantations and the power that the Europeans , the Americans, and some other Africans had over the slaves. I also think that the slave trade was unnecessary, but all those four continents that were involved benefited from it one way or another as they all played important roles because without one, let say the West Indies and Americans, who would of bought all those slave? Or which plantations would the slaves have worked on? And the slave trade wouldn’t have been so successful or benefiting without one side of the triangle. Or without the slave we wouldn’t have what we have today but I still think the way they treated black people was out of order and shouldn’t had to happen in order for the countries to have wealth. How to cite What Lay Behind the Horrors of the Slave Trade, Papers

The Stuxnet Virus free essay sample

Historic data shows that Iran accounted for almost sixty percent of the early infections. According to Siemens, 15 of its customers were identified as having detected the worm on their systems as of Sept. 14. Stuxnet used stolen digital certificates from Realtek Semiconductor and JMicron Technology to legitimately slip through and hide. The certificates also helped keep Stuxnet under the radar. 1. 1 Why are all the fingers pointing to the United States and Israel? Most cyber security experts who have researched this complex attack call it a joint U. S. Israeli operation, which may have also included Germany and Great Britain. It is also a well known fact which, incidentally, has not been denied by either the US. or Israel, that Israeli intelligence tested aspects of the worm using centrifuges identical to Irans at Israel’s Dimona complex. Even Siemens the German company cooperated with Idaho National Laboratories in the US to identify the vulnerabilities of computer controllers that the company sells to operate industrial machinery around the world. We will write a custom essay sample on The Stuxnet Virus or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Not too long afterwards, those very vulnerabilities were exploited by Stuxnet. . Why a Cyber Attack? Cyber warfare requires intellect not military might and a country does not have to be a military superpower to wage a cyber attack. Cyber attack tracks are much easier to cover and are easily attributable to another entity. While cyber attacks are only recently been declared by our military and political leadership as acts of war, compared to an actual physical military attack on another country life can go on as usual for most of the citizens on both sides of the conflict without the slightest idea that their country is at war. It does not cost billions of dollars to run or manage and is hardly a long-term commitment of hundreds of thousands of troops and the logistics to support them and their equipment at the front lines. In case of Iran, a cyber attack was the most viable option available to global powers because the Iranian regime did not hesitate to make threats against the United States and Israel should it have been attacked militarily to make it stop trying to produce nuclear weapons. 2. 1 What exactly is Stuxnet designed to do? Graphic: Courtesy of The New York Times, January 15, 2011 Stuxnet is the first malware of its type designed to cross over the cyber – industrial divide and attacking critical infrastructure like power stations and electricity grids. On 26 September 2010, Irans state news agency reported that computers at its Bushehr nuclear power plant had been infected. The New York Times article, Israeli Test on Worm called Crucial in Iran Nuclear Delay, describes the complex function of Stuxnet in very simple terms: â€Å"One part of the program is designed to lie dormant for long periods, and then speed up the machines so that the spinning rotors in the centrifuges wobble and then destroy themselves. Another part, called a â€Å"man in the middle† in the computer world, sends out those false sensor signals to make the system believe everything is running smoothly. That prevents a safety system from kicking in, which would shut down the plant before it could self-destruct. † The same article further quotes Ralph Langer, widely credited for having solved Stuxnet, as saying: â€Å"Code analysis makes it clear hat Stuxnet is not about sending a message or proving a concept,† and later saying â€Å"It is about destroying its targets with utmost determination in military style. † Stuxnet was designed to seek out its target, cripple it beyond repair without causing any collateral damage; stay lurking in the shadows to continue to strike, all without leaving any conclusive evidence of who sent it on its mission in the first place. Needless to say, it succeeded in its mission. 2. 2 How effective was Stuxnet and why? To sit remotely, thousands of miles away and receive an email update from your smart malware that it has disabled your enemy’s commercial power grid says something about the power and effectiveness of this new weapon of cyber warfare. By most accounts and estimates damage from the Stuxnet virus has apparently set back the Iranian nuclear program by at least two years. This makes the virus as effective as a military strike, perhaps even more; all this without loss of life, collateral damage, or risk of a full-blown war. 3. History and future of nation state cyber warfare According to the Council on Foreign Relations, although few countries beyond the well-known players like China, Russia, and Israel and a handful of others have historically possessed the capability to launch a full scale cyber attack along the lines of the Stuxnet attack, over one hundred countries have begun to organize cyber warfare units. (Masters, 2011, sec. 2) Across the world, countries are either engaged in cyber battles with their arch enemies or gearing up to bolster their defenses against cyber warfare.

Penguins Essays (1060 words) - Flightless Birds, Penguins

Penguins Myopic little men in tuxedos, or highly efficient land/water animals? Recent research indicates there's more to penguins than meets the eye. If you've every wondered what it would be like to be able to see as clearly under water as you can on land, just ask the nearest penguin.Most aquatic animals are short-sighted on land. Most terrestrial animals (and that includes us) are far-sighted under water. But researchers have discovered that penguins can apparently see equally well in both environments, because of the unique structure of their eyes. Penguins have to be able to see well under water because their diet consists mainly of plankton, molluscs, crustaceans, and the inevitable fish. Through a special slowing-down of their heart rate they're able, like many other diving animals, to stay submerged long enough to search out and chase whatever catches their fancy. On dry land, it's a different story-or has been up to now. Waddling along on their flat little feet, eyes fixed intently o n the ground, penguins appear myopic, inefficient and generally out of place. In fact the reverse is true. During a recent stay on the Falkland Islands, a Canadian researcher discovered that penguins are able to recognize individuals and navigate the rocky terrain on which they live quite well. Long of body and short of leg, they probably poke their heads forward as an aid to balance. And as for looking at the ground, they're merely-like us-keeping an eye on where they're going. The human eye is adapted for aerial vision, which is why scuba divers-or even you and I in the local swimming pool-must wear goggles or a face mask to re-introduce air in front of our eyes in order to see clearly. Among vertebrates in general, the bird eye is frequently described as the most efficient. Its superior quality, combined with the fact that a large number of birds-cormorants, pelicans, seagulls, even ducks, as well as penguins-get their food from water, obviously deserved research beyond that poss ible in a controlled environment such as an aquarium or zoo. Professor Jacob Sivak of the University of Waterloo and his associate, Professor Howard Howland of Cornell University, had a chance to do that research recently. Their trip had but one purpose-to study the structure of penguins' eyes while observing their natural habitat. The Falkland Islands, off the coast of Argentina, offered this opportunity, being one the few areas outside Antarctica where penguins can be found in large numbers. Three of the 16 known species were located there: the Gentoo, which live on flat areas right off the beach; the Magellan (also called Jackass), which live in burrows; and the Rock-hoppers, which live among the rocks along the cliffs. The Rock-hoppers were by far the most common, having a population of well over 100,000. The general rule is, the smaller the penguin, the meaner the temperament, and the researchers did witness the odd fight. Their flippers may look pretty useless out of water, b ut it's not smart to play around with a penguin. Hel'll stand his ground in a face-off and if you're foolish enough to get too close, those flippers can knock you flat. Dr. Sivak and his associate, however, had little trouble. Rock-hoppers always congregate in fairly tight groups, as a defense against predatory birds such as the skua (a large seagull that thinks it's a hawk), and two more upright figures in their midst didn't seem to bother them. Standing as close to their subjects as 0.3m, the scientists used two devices: one, developed by Professor Howland, to take photographs of the penguins' eyes; the othger, developed by Dr. Sivak, to shine a series of concentric circles on the cornea and give a measurement of how reflections of objects are altered by curvature of the eye. Despite the fact all the work had to be done at night-the only time the penguins' pupils were dilated enough-the results were worth it. Comparison of the photographs with similar photos of human eyes, and st udy of the internal structure of the eyes of creatures discovered killed by seal lions, proved the scientists' theory that the penguin's eyes are the secret of its survival. In general terms, a penguin eye and a human

Analysis of Their Eyes Were Watching God - The American Dream essays

Analysis of Their Eyes Were Watching God - The American Dream essays This story's title come from the passage, "They seemed to be staring at the dark, but their eyes were watching God" (God 151). Dreams are an important part of this book, and they represent the ideas, values, goals, and topics that are essentially American. The author shows that men and women often have different dreams and different goals, and that is why many relationships do not work. She believes that women's dreams symbolize truth, and men's dreams symbolize hope and often resignation. The author is saying that the American dream may come true right away, but often the dreams amount to nothing. She writes, "Ships at a distance have every man's wish on board. For some they come in with the tide. For others they sail forever on the horizon, never out of sight, never landing until the Watcher turns his eyes away in resignation, his dreams mocked to death by Time. That is the life of men. Now, women forget all those things they don't want to remember, and remember everything they don't want to forget. The dream is the truth. Then they act and do things accordingly" (God 1). Ultimately, her theme and goal is to show that the American dream is the "truth" of the American spirit, and that dreaming of happiness and success is what keeps many Americans going every day. This is a very American theme, because it has happened repeatedly in America. People with nothing come here, become successful, and begin new lives, just as Janie earns her freedom and happiness by the end of the novel. She has lived a hard life, and that is essential in the American dream, too. Finding a dream is never easy, and Jamie's life shows that. However, she has persevered, and outlived two men who were not the ideal man, and she has learned about herself in the process. That is also a very American goal in finding happiness and fulfillment. Learning about yourself in the process is important and can make the success even more fulfilling. ...

Teetotaller - Definition and Origin

Teetotaller - Definition and Origin Definition: A teetotaller is someone who totally abstains from liquor. In the 19th century, the Preston Temperance Society in England and, later, the American Temperance Union encouraged a pledge of abstinence from intoxicating liquor, as part of the temperance movement. Those who had signed the pledge were asked to use a T with their signature to mean total abstinence. The T plus the total led to those whod signed the pledge being called T-totallers or teetotallers. The term was in use as early as 1836 when an explanation of it as meaning total abstainer appeared in print. From there, the term came to be used more generally, for anyone who voluntarily committed to abstinence, or simply for a nondrinker. The Pledge The pledge of temperance from the Preston Temperance Society (in Preston, England) read: We agree to abstain from all liquors of an intoxicating quality whether ale, porter, wine or ardent spirits, except as medicine. Also Known As: Abstainer, dry, nondrinker, prohibitionist Other words for teetotalism:  Abstinence, temperance,  abstemiousness, on the wagon, dry, sober. Alternate Spellings: t-totaller, teetotaler Examples: First Lady Lucy Hayes, wife of President Rutherford B. Hayes, was known as Lemonade Lucy because, as a teetotaller, she did not serve liquor in the White House. Henry Ford required a teetotaller pledge for those he hired in his new auto production industry, to promote better productivity and workplace safety. Learn more about how teetotallism fit into the more general movement to limit or ban the use of alcoholic beverages: Temperance Movement and Prohibition Timeline Image: the image included is an example of the Victorian era pledge, complete with very Victorian floral embellishment. Religious groups that require or encourage abstinence from the use of alcoholic beverages: Assembly of God,  Bahai, Christian Science,  Islam, Jainism, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS. also known as the Mormon Church), Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Christ, Sikhism, Salvation Army.   Also, some Hindu and Buddhist sects, and some Mennonite and Pentecostal groups. Methodists in English and American history often taught abstinence but rarely do that currently. In the Victorian era, many in both the Evangelical and Unitarian movements taught at least restraint, if not temperance and teetotalling. Most of those religions that prohibit alcohol do so on the grounds that it is harmful, that it inhibits mindfulness, or can easily lead to unethical behavior. Some famous women teetotallers: In history, women becoming teetotallers was often an expression of religious values, or was based on general social reform principles.   In the modern world, some women become teetotallers for such reasons, and others because of a past history of alcoholism or alcohol abuse. Tyra Banks: a model and actress.Susan Boyle: singer.Pearl S. Buck: writer, won Nobel Prize for Literature, 1938.Faye Dunaway: actress.Janeane Garofalo: actress.Kathy Griffin: comedian.Elisabeth Hasselbeck: television personality.Jennifer Hudson: singer.Carrie Nation: temperance activist.Kelly Osbourne: actress.Marie Osmond: singer.Natalie Portman: actress.Anna Quindlen: writer.Christina Ricci: actress.Anne Rice: writer.Linda Rondstadt: singer.Sarah Silverman: comedian, actress and writer.Jada Pinkett Smith: actress.Lucy Stone: womens rights activist.Mae West: actress.  Frances Willard: temperance reformer.

Information Paper on World War I Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Information on World War I - Research Paper Example Historians have identified three direct main causes that led to the war. They are the conflict between the Central Powers like Germany, Austria, Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the Allied Powers like France, Russia, Britain, Italy and the United States. Widespread militarism and economic imperialism pushed the ambitious leadership of the countries to the warzone. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the flashpoint that sparked the war. That was on June 28, 1914 when a Bosnian Serb student by name Gavrilo Princip, shot and killed him. Ferdinand was heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. That student wanted Serbia to be independent from the domain of Austria Hungary. The latter demanded that those responsible for the assignation must be punished .Stewart Ross writes â€Å"On 23rd July, 1914 Vienna sent Serbia an ultimatum that, if accepted, would have made Serbia virtually an Austro-Hungarian province. The Serbs had 48 hours to accept it—or face the consequences.à ¢â‚¬ (p.7)When Serbia did not comply with the demand and Austria Hungary declared war on Serbia. Serbia, as the ally of the Allied Powers, declared war on Austria Hungary. Central Powers intervened on behalf of the later and thus a chain reaction resulted and a full-fledged war was in the offing. Widespread militarism initiated the mind war first. The upper class with the stockpile of weapons and wealth in abundance remained suspect about the power of the other. Desire for maintaining the superior level of military power bothered them much. The Royal Navy of Britain was the envy of Germany and Austria Hungary as it was much superior to theirs. They thought that the ideal strategy to contain the naval might of Britain was to declare war. Economic imperialism empowered by trade with the foreign colonies was the strong point with Great Britain and France. Germany and Austria Hungary had few foreign colonies

Racial Profiling 2 Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Racial Profiling 2 - Annotated Bibliography Example "Why racial profiling is a bad idea, top seven arguments against racial profiling." About.com, civil liberties 2011: 1. Web. 17 Mar 2011. http://civilliberty.about.com/od/lawenforcementterrorism/tp/Against-Racial-Profiling.htm A popular columnist for the internet site about.com, Tom Head presents a look with seven concise points showing why the use of racial profiling is a bad idea. His list includes, Racial profiling doesn’t work, Racial profiling distracts law enforcement agencies from more useful approaches, racial profiling prevents police from serving the entire community, racial profiling prevents communities from working with law enforcement, racial profiling is a blatant violation of the Fourteenth Amendment, racial profiling can easily escalate into racially-motivated violence and the most important approach, racial profiling is morally wrong. Tom Head is not simply a columnist, he is a well-educated individual who holds a Masters of Arts in humanities from California State University, Dominguez Hills and is a Ph.D. candidate at Edith Cowan University.

Culture and Culturally Competent Counselors Essay Example for Free

Culture and Culturally Competent Counselors Essay Being Culturally Competent Letitia Batton Walden University Being Culturally Competent Counselors should have a sense of compassion and respect for people who are culturally different. As a social worker, it is easy to make diagnosis based on verbal and non-verbal presentation of our clients. Hays (2008) stated there are many factors to assess which include race, class, family structure, culture, relationships, religion, and generational/cultural influences. Based on the case study of Mrs. Hudson her externalizing behaviors may stem from an underlying anxiety disorder. It seems that her attacks are not medical in nature that is why she was referred by her primary doctor. She just recently started having these attacks and they happen out of the home and when she has to interact with others. Her assessment reveals that she is presently considered middle class, attended church prior to attacks, family oriented, and educated. Some potential concerns could be her daughter’s illness and past issues with her father that never got closure. Haitian culture relies on spiritual healing more so than Americanized tradition and this may be a big step for Mrs. Hudson (Pierce Elisme, 2001). Counselors must be trained and competent when implementing diagnosis with culturally diverse clients. (Sue, 2008). DSM-IV provides counselors a tool to evaluate client’s cultural context (Hays, 2008). This process helps counselor’s assess their client’s background, cultural explanation of their issues, client’s environment, relationships, and overall cultural assessment to diagnosis and treatment (APA, 2002). Researchers have argued that the DSM-IV does not accurately represent all minorities (APA, 2002). It is important that counselors understand the family structure in order to provide the most accurate assessment information possible. Unfortunately, counselors are not immune to stereotypes. Beliefs in stereotypes, whether conscious or not, may lead to incorrect diagnosis and misunderstandings between the clinician and the client (Hays, 2008). These beliefs may stem from television or news reports. If believed, they may cause counselor to incorrectly interpret the diagnosis. When this happens the client may become offended and end counseling. Counselors should have knowledge of their own general views, as well as specific knowledge about diverse client’s issues (Sue, 2008). Diversity in family structure should also be taken into consideration when formulating goals and assessing treatment success or failure (APA, 2002). Counselors also attempt to understand the cultural values of each client to gain feelings of trust. Some issues with culturally competent assessments is that it is not race specific and whether existing instruments measure the correct attributes, based on different cultures (Hays, 2008). Diversity plays a role in many aspects of assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. Clarity in these three characteristics may allow counselors to better assist families from diverse backgrounds and that will bring about better treatment outcomes (APA, 2002). Counselors should have an attitude of cultural humility in knowing their limits of knowledge and skills in rendering diagnosis with certainty than reinforcing stereotypes and generalizations (Sue, 2008). While guidelines exist for conducting a culturally competent assessment, few of these guidelines provide the link between the information gathered, the initial decision making, and the development of the treatment plan (APA, 2008).

Animal Farm as a Political Satire to Criticise Totalitarian Regimes Ess

Animal Farm as a Political Satire to Criticise Totalitarian Regimes This study aims to determine that George Orwell's Animal Farm is a political satire which was written to criticise totalitarian regimes and particularly Stalin's practices in Russia. In order to provide background information that would reveal causes led Orwell to write Animal Farm, Chapter one is devoted to a brief summary of the progress of author's life and significant events that had impact on his political convictions. Chapter one also presents background information about Animal Farm. Chapter two is devoted to satire. In this chapter, definition of satire is presented and some important characteristics of satire are discussed. In chapter three, the method of this research is described. Under the light of information presented in the previous chapters, Chapter four discusses Animal Farm and focuses on the book as a political satire. The last chapter presents the conclusion of this study.<font size="3">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would first like to express my sincere thanks to my thesis supervisor, Assoc.Prof. Dr. Jashua M. Bear for his help and freedom he gave me in this study. Without his understanding this thesis would never have been completed.I also wish to thank my sister Fidan Korkut for her suggestions in the planning stage of this study and her endurance during my long study days at home.My special thanks go to Ãâ€"zgà ¼r Ceylan, who constantly granted me her moral support. She was always there when I needed her.<font face="3">THE AUTHOR: GEORGE ORWELLPresentationThis chapter introduces general information about George Orwell's life. It includes chronological progress of his life and his political convictions. Furthermore, important events, such as The Russian Revolution and The Spanish Civil War which had significant influence on his commitment to write Animal Farm will be discussed. Lastly, general information about Animal Farm will be given.His LifeThe British author George Orwell, pen name of Eric Arthur Blair, was born in Motihari, India, June 25, 1903. His father was an important British civil servant in India, which was then part of t he British Empire. A few years after Eric was born, he retired on a low pension and moved back to England. Though their income was not much enough, the Blair family sent their son away to boarding school which was an exclusive p... ...ed from primary and secondary sources.<font size="3">ANIMAL FARM AS SATIREPresentationIn this chapter, under the light of information given in the chapter-1 and chapter-2, Animal Farm will be examined. It aims at to show the elements of satire in Animal Farm, and to compare characters, events and some elements of Animal Farm and The Russian Revolution Elements of Satire In Animal FarmOrwell, as quoted before, clearly explains that his main purpose for writing Animal Farm was to write a satire on the Russian Revolution (In Shelden, 1991, p.399). Through animal satire, Orwell attacks on the Stalin's practices in Russia and in wider scope, on totalitarian regimes. Taking Bozkurt's (1977) classification into consideration, Animal Farm would be said to be a Juvenial satire. Since, it is clearly seen that Orwell bitterly criticise Russian Communism and Stalin.Summary of The PlotOne night after Farmer Jones has gone to bed drunk, all the animals of Manor Farm meet in the barn for a meeting. Old Major, the prize Middle White boar, wants to tell them about a strange dream he had. First, he narrate "the nature of life" as he has come to understand it. Animals, though work very hard.

Themes in Things Fall Apart

In Chinua Achebe's acclaimed novel, Things Fall Apart, there are various themes which make up the complexity and richness of the story. Although it is a work of fiction, Achebe touches upon contemporary issues involving Africa and colonialism. Colonialism is defined as political control over another country. Often this means exploiting its resources and tampering with the precious culture of the people. Post- colonial Africa is still trying to recover, by trying to adapt a mindset of what it truly means to be an African.Achebe explores these issues through his own African roots nd portrays what he believes is the true essence of African culture. One major theme of the novel is language. Language is the most effective and prominently used tool for communicating to other people. It is clear that speech is used in a different form depending on who is addressed. For example, when addressing an Igbo god or an ancestral spirit, one uses a formal tone of speech. This is to show a sign of re spect.Similarly, when people of the tribe approach and speak to Okonkwo, they use a similar tone. They respect Okonkwo for his many feats including beating Amalinze the cat. For this reason, they reflect their feeling in their speech. A significant speech barrier occurred between the Christian Missionaires. In order to communicate with the people they were required to use an interpretor. An interpretor does not always deliver the message precisely, causing severe lines of miscommunication.Eventually, these unclear communication lines could lead to ignorance among the two peoples. Another form of communication in the tribe are the folktales and proverbs. This is the Igbo peoples way of communicating their values to the younger generations. Language plays a very important role in their society, and the loss of their language is a tremendous loss of their culture. Another important theme in the novel is the theme of gender. Gender roles are central to Igbo society. To understand Igbo w orldview it is essential to understand the cultural gender roles.Even the crops are separated by male and female; in example, the yam is said to be a male crop. Males are expected to be masculine in every sense of the word. They should be physically strong and equally as violent. They are not to show emotion because that is considered a sign of weakness. For instance, Okonkwo rarely shows affection towards his children because that would be a weak sign of emotion. Due to this fact, men in the Igbo culture are assigned the role of warriors and hunters.The men do all of the hard labor and interact largely within the public sphere. On the other hand, women are viewed as weak because they do not physically compare to men. In a similar way, woman display emotions which supposedly diminishes their strength. However, women dominate the private sphere. Their role is to raise the family, clean the home, cook, etc. It is a bit ironic that the mportant Job of raising the children is given to t he â€Å"weaker† sex; Achebe touches upon this fact.The character of Okonkwo takes the idealology of masculinity too far. He suffers from patrophobia because he does not want to be like his father who was lazy and weak. For this reason he is cold towards his children and eventually kills his adoptive son Nwoye. Achebe makes it clear that these actions are not acceptable within the community. There must always be a balance between feminine and Additionally, the theme of religion is one prominently discussed within the novel. The Igbo people have a religion that is based upon the earth.Their entire culture revolves around agriculture and the mystery of nature and the seasons; therefore, they worship gods and goddesses which will help them in this dominating aspect of their lives. The people are fearful that if they commit a sin against their god that they will be punished by way of crop elimination or natural disaster. Also, considering the central role of family, ancestral spi rits are extremely important to the Igbo people. It is imperative that the people do not forget their ancestors, for they believe that if they give thanks to them, then they in spirit will reward them in return.The ancestral spirits are respected to the point that Judges in trials (masked elders) represent the ancestors who were wise and Just in decision making. During colonialism, Christian missionaries pushed the idea of a singular monolithic God. This idea was very foreign to the people and seemed irrevelvent to Igbo lifestyle. Some Igbo people accepted this new idea, however others remained firm in their beliefs. This shows the Igbo peoples open-mindedness when it comes to the spiritual world. To demean their spiritual nature would be to degrade their culture.

Daniele Mariani

Europass Curriculum Vitae Personal information First name(s) / Surname(s) Address(es) Telephone(s) E-mail Nationality Date of birth Daniele MARIANI Via Augusto Sindici, 5 – 00155 Roma +39 062288549 [email  protected] it Italian 20 SETTEMBRE 1985 Mobile: +39 3426467377 Work experience Dates Occupation or position held Name and address of employer Type of business or sector 2005 leaflets Gruppo Interclub – Via Plinio 44 – ROMA SRL Education and trainingDates Title of qualification awarded Principal subjects/occupational skills covered December 2009 – February 26, 2013 Degree in Electronic Engineering (Vote 99/110) Course of study lasting two years, with in-depth professional training in specific fields Electronics Engineering with specialization in Optoelectronics, with main subjects Electronics for Photovoltaics, Optoelectronics, Nano-electronics, Organic Organic Electronics, Electronic high-frequency electronics space , electronic devices and sensors Tit le of the thesis (field of nanoelectronics): â€Å"Electron-phonon interaction in nanoelectronic devices† Supervisor: prof.Alessandro Pecchia Should you wish to check my references, please contact the following people Prof. Alessandro Pecchia – University of Rome Tor Vergata Email: [email  protected] uniroma2. it University of Rome Tor Vergata – Course in Electronic Engineering Degree Level 2 Name and type of organisation providing education and training Level in national or international classification Dates Title of qualification awardedOctober 2004 – November 26, 2009 Degree in Electronic Engineering (Vote 89/110) Page 1/2 – Curriculum vitae of MARIANI Daniele For more information on Europass go to http://europass. cedefop. europa. eu  © European Communities, 2003 20060628 Principal subjects/occupational skills covered Three year course in Electronic Engineering. Thesis title: â€Å"Verification and validation of a control system of railway vehicles nosing† Supervisor: prof. Giuseppe Fazio.Supervisor: Ing. Danilo Longo. Collaboration with the company RFI (Italian Railway Network SpA) for the provision of data for the development of the thesis University of Rome Tor Vergata – Course in Electronic Engineering Degree Level 1 September 1999 – July 2004 Scientific maturity (Vote 92/100) – High School Diploma Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, English, Computer During the school years I have represented my school at the Olympics in MathematicsName and type of organisation providing education and training Level in national or international classification Dates Title of qualification awarded Principal subjects/occupational skills covered Name and type of organisation providing ITIS Giovanni Giorgi – High School for Science and Technology – ROME education and training During secondary school characterized, compared to traditional high school science, lack of education Latin re placed by ‘computer. Other language(s) Mother tongue Self-assessment European level (*) Italian UnderstandingListening A2 Elementary level B1 Reading Intermediate Speaking Spoken interaction Spoken production A2 Elementary level A2 Elementary level B1 Writing Intermediate English (*) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Social skills and competences Ability to work in a team gained during my college career: the relationship with other graduates has always been of profound respect and full co-operation with maximum availability and to give than to receive explanations, in a perspective of teamwork. From my thesis supervisor was profound for my work.Good ability to communicate effectively, by formulating judgments independently, contributing innovative design may Full cooperation in the management of activities and projects, according to the deadlines and targets. The main goal is customer satisfaction. WORD, POWER POINT, EXCEL (MICROSOFT OFFICE SUITE). Software: PARAVIEW, TIBERCAD (for the simulation of modern nanotechnology and optoelectronics) and basics of MATLAB (in the context of the thesis) Browser: IE, FIREFOX, CHROME Programming languages: C + + (basics) FORTRAN 95 (basics) Programs for data manipulation and plotting graphs: XMGRACE, VEUSZOrganisational skills and competences Technical skills ,Computer skills and competences Driving licence License category â€Å"B† secondary schools Additional information During the degree course, in his spare time I have given tuition in mathematics for students of I authorize the processing of personal data pursuant to Legislative lgs. 196/03 Page 2/2 – Curriculum vitae of MARIANI Daniele For more information on Europass go to http://europass. cedefop. europa. eu  © European Communities, 2003 20060628

Gradable Words

Gradable Words Gradable Words Gradable Words By Mark Nichol Many adjectives have degrees of grade or intensity: big (adjective), bigger (comparative adjective), and biggest (superlative adjective), for examples of varying grades, or loud (adjective), louder (comparative adjective), and loudest (superlative adjective) as various levels of intensity. Others, however, have no variation: You cannot (notwithstanding the poetic license of the US Constitution’s â€Å"a more perfect union†) be perfecter than someone else or be the perfectest of all. Such terms, classified as nongradable adjectives, are called absolutes: Just as one cannot be the perfectest person, one cannot be very unique or more correct, or the most unique or correct. Despite the definitive term absolute, however, there is a little wiggle room: When absolutes become modifiers or are themselves otherwise modified, the rules are relaxed: Someone can be more uniquely situated than someone else, or more politically correct. Likewise, terms that seem absolute something can’t be more excellent or more impossible than sometime else aren’t necessarily so: You can say that an experience was quite excellent or that a task was nearly impossible. (These, however, are qualitative, not quantitative, grades. You can measure that something is hotter than something else, but you can’t quantify excellence or possibility. Probability, yes; possibility, no.) Other absolutes include references to states of being, as with alive and dead and white and black, words that express extremes of size such as gigantic and minuscule, terms that refer to polar opposites of quality, like terrible and terrific, and those that indicate outliers of emotion: furious, overjoyed, distraught. Some words that can be used in the same situations are not necessarily interchangeable: For example, as mentioned above, hot is gradable (hot, hotter, hottest, or â€Å"very hot† or the like), but freezing, even though it can be substituted, without modifiers, for hot, is nongradable: â€Å"It’s really freezing† is a plausible informal comment, but it’s not a factual statement, and â€Å"It’s more freezing than it was earlier† is illogical. Some adjectives are gradable or nongradable depending on meaning. For example, though you can refer to an elderly man who owns property as a very old landlord, it’s incorrect to use the phrase â€Å"very old landlord† to refer to a landlord you had a long time ago; the phrase â€Å"old landlord† cannot be intensified to convey a significant passage of time since the pertinent state of â€Å"landlord† (as in â€Å"my landlord†) existed. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Definitely use "the" or "a"Do you "orient" yourself, or "orientate" yourself?The "Pied" in The Pied Piper

Behavior That Has a Different Meaning Another Culture in

Describe a gesture or behavior that has a different meaning another culture in. Provide a complete description of the action and what it means in both cultures Gesture and behavior has a big differences In features and differences in the world. Every time we are taking a trip to another country we try to discover as much as possible information about a country where we are travel to. Every time when we are going to another country we should know that in different countries gestures are different. Many gestures are Interpreted differently than In our own country.Since I m a representative from another country, I would like to tell you about the gestures of my country, too. So, swinging your head left and right, and countries, including Russia, means no; however, In countries such as Bulgaria, India, Greece this means endorsement, yes and so on. One of the most common gestures over the world is Okay Hand Sign as we can judge as an endorsement or so thats all well and fine. In English-speaking countries gesture Okay Hand Sign, has a positive, endorsing the value okay. Also in Russia, this gesture has the same meaning as in English-speaking countries.But In France this gesture expresses conflicting emotions and opposite meaning. In Brazil, such gesture may judge as disrespect to the public or other person. Okay gesture is vulgar and obscene for educated people In Brazil. The gesture is interpreted in various countries In various ways. Another famous gesture is Thumbs up Hand Sign. Raising your hand in front of others and making Thumb up Hand Sigh it can be treated as All right, All is fine. Pulling your hand up and pointing your thumb behind someone, this is used in Russia and In many Europe countries.In Muslim countries, the sigh Is offensive and indecent. So, do not use the gesture in these countries. In Saudi Arabia, the rotational movement of the finger can Judge as a Scram out of here, Goodbye; however, meaning Goodbye will be expressed in aggressive style. Saying Goodbye to the people from America you must keep your hand horizontally and slowly lift it as if you were clapping someone on his shoulder or head. Russians waving their hands from one side to another; although, this gesture in other countries may have different concept. For example, when Hispanics see this gesture they think that It is an Invitation that has different meaning In Russians. Sign of the Horns has a variety of meanings. In Russian tales Sigh of the Horns depicts actual goat. In heavy metal subculture this gesture is view as metal sigh, to signify that the music they are listening to, mostly rock or metal genre. In some Western Europe and North America that sign (corona) Is offensive allusion to the fact that the person to whom It is shown Cuckold Very famous gesture all over the world is The V sigh. In Russia, as a rule means number two. For example, this way we order two beers in a bar. In America, The V facing your target, youre giving somebody a long-established insult in Great Britain and many English speaking countries such as Australia, Ireland and New Zealand. In many countries, one of them is Russia as well; tapping your forehead means What a fool Italian and French, tapping their foreheads, tell you that they do not like the idea and it seems silly. In Britain and Spain, it is a sign of admiration and contentment is in Germany anger and resentment, but the Dutchmen so portray [Our idea they liked. And remember, smile and kindness in any country leads to communication.

Fair trade for the developing countries Research Paper

Fair trade for the developing countries - Research Paper Example Fair trade mainly exists in developing countries and it targets specific areas, for instance, the Handicrafts, Coffee Industry, Tea Industry etc, it does so in order to make sure that the workers and the producers are benefitted and their economic stature improves by participating in Fair trade. To understand the concept better, its principles should be well understood and they are as follows:â€Å"Creating opportunities for economically disadvantaged producers, Fair trade is a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Its purpose is to create opportunities for producers who have been economically disadvantaged or marginalized by the conventional trading system.† The most important principle of Fair trade is to ensure that there are ample opportunities provided to the producer, the sole aim of Fair trade is to ensure the well being of the workers and the producers and in this process the first is to provide opportunities to the producer because only when th e producer has opportunities, it can be passed on to the workers.â€Å"Transparency and accountability, Fair trade involves transparent management and commercial relations to deal fairly and respectfully with trading partners.† Another important principle of Fair trade is to make sure transparency exists in every activity initiated by it, in the sense that every activity initiated by Fair trade should be without any fusses and problems, fair rules and policies are followed hence ensuring the economic and financial safety of the producer.

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4

Strategic Management - Essay Example 277). The Walt Disney Company's mission has evolved through the years as the company has gained more success. Walter Disney founded the company in 1923; it was after he visited amusement parks with his daughters where he would be bored while they played. The original mission was to provide entertainment of the kind that children and adults both could enjoy, making the whole experience family oriented. However, as the years have progressed, the Disney mission has evolved as well. The official mission statement of Disney is the following: â€Å"The mission of The Walt Disney Company is to be the largest and most trusted producer and provider of entertainment and information. Using our portfolio of brands to differentiate our content, services and consumer products, we will become the most responsive and adaptable to serve the needs of the consumers’ in our target markets. We will maintain our integrity and adhere to the core values upon which our company was founded as we creat e the most innovative and profitable entertainment experiences, most reliable and relevant informational services, and related products in the world† (Walt Disney Mission Statement: Creativity + Innovation = Profits, 2013). One of the key reasons due to which it is as successful as it is due to its strong vision, which is to be one of, if not, the mot major producer and provider of entertainment and information in the world. In fact, the company is now seen to be the most innovative and creative in providing entertainment to children and adults alike, with rides, characters, detailed storytelling, hotels, spas and a sports complex. Important Stakeholders: Stakeholders and risk bearers exist in every business, be it a small home-based one or an expansive multinational. Therefore, naturally, the multibillion-dollar worth, Disney Theme Parks has their share of stakeholders. These include the employees, consumers, communities that live near the resorts, suppliers, factories, retai lers, contract workers, nongovernmental organizations and charities, media, governmental organizations and, of course, the shareholders (The Business Communication Casebook: A Notre Dame Collection, pg. 251). Since it is a company of a large scale, it has numerous stakeholders to consider and engage with when making plans or addressing issues (The Business Communication Casebook: A Notre Dame Collection, pg. 251). It is, in fact, a mark of strength of a company of this large a size to engage with its stakeholders in order to better address their needs and the needs of the communities they work in, to result in more cohesion and better returns. Opportunities and Threats: Although Disney has become a huge corporation in terms of the services it provides, there are still several opportunities and aspects that it can perhaps tap into. Disney, due to its major clientele, can be a good source of promoting world peace and other noble causes. Because it is a theme park stemming from childho od stories and cartoons, it could be a rich source of providing education to the needy since it can reach out to many people. Another philanthropic opportunity it could pursue would be to give employment to citizens that cannot find work elsewhere, as a way of giving them a second chance to make a difference to society. Since Disney is

The price of diamonds is too high Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The price of diamonds is too high - Essay Example Before the 19th century, diamond minerals were known to be rare as it was found in India and Brazil. During 1870 large mines for diamond deposits were discovered in South Africa at place near orange. Such became a threat to the few diamond producers despite the large supply thus made the commodity a luxury instead of a commodity. At the year 1888, a body was formed known as De Beers Consolidated mines in South Africa by suppliers in order to secure a high market for diamond prices. Initially, diamond cartel controlled successfully the supply worldwide regulation done at mine output and purchase of the exclusive right to mining nations across Africa. At the onset of 20th century, DE beers dominated around 90 percent trade for diamond internationally. In 1930, there was a decline in the diamond demand, causing the son of De beers to initiate an advertising agency that incorporated an advertising strategy to target young men in order to purchase a ring for engagement in order to become a form of acceptance during courtship declaration. Through such strategy, diamond price rose, unlike other minerals. Currently, the cartel dominates in approximately two thirds of the diamond (Diamond, 1971). According to pricing theory consideration, is on economic activity due to creation and transfer of value. That covers the trading of goods and services on economic agents that are distinctive. Such explains the high cost of the diamond in comparison with water .this depends on the utility of particular purpose and purchasing power of goods that the object possesses. Such is known as the value exchange and uses in value. Minerals such as diamond derive its value due to scarcity nature and labour intensity required to extract such minerals. The labour involved forms a basic unit the exchange process of value of goods. That will be of great significance to determine overall prices. Thus, the nominal price according to Bagweel & Riordan (1991) has a

Theories of Learning for Classrooms

Theories of Learning for Classrooms Learning is the process that results in a relatively enduring change in a person or persons (Alexander et al, 2009: 186). Learning is a dynamic process whereby the students knowledge and skills are different before to after learning (Winn, 1990). Teaching is by definition the promotion of learning and ought therefore to be informed by the best of our knowledge about learning. Learning and teaching poses a synergistic relationship; that is teachers need to teach with an approach that reinforces how students naturally learn (Muijs brooks book). A number of educational researchers offer learning paradigms to explain how individuals learn. The way students learn can be used to foster effective teaching practices, and ultimately align teaching with positive learning and educational experiences. Understanding how knowledge is developed and comprehended can allow teachers to shape the methodological delivery of their subject content to match the theoretical frameworks, underpinning how knowledge is processed. Attending to the nature of student learning can allow teachers to improve their practice and in turn the quality of the learners experience (Macleod Golby, 2003). The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by the Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of learning. Behaviouristic Theory of Learning Learning, according to behaviourists (Watson, Pavlov), is defined as acquisition of new behaviour. The focus of behaviourism is on the conditioning of observable human behaviour and is based on the principal conception that a reaction is made in response to a specific stimulus. This reaction leads to a consequence. If the consequence is pleasant and positive, the behaviour change becomes reinforced. With consistent reinforcement, the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned and is automatically activated upon stimuli presentation. Physiologically, behaviourist theories propose that learning is achieved through reinforcement of a particular neural pathway, which links the stimuli and response in the brain. This activation and reinforcement results in a faster, smoother implementation of certain reactions and responses. The connections between the stimuli and specific responses are built correctly and then reinforced over time through practise and repetition, which ultimately strengthens the neural pathways, resulting in a more efficient response to the stimuli. (Pritchard). Behaviourists term this form of learning conditioning, whereby with consistent reinforcement the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned. Classical conditioning involves the reinforcement of a natural reflex or behaviours which occur naturally as a response to a specific stimulus. In contrast, operant conditioning involves reinforcing a behaviour by praising it, or discouraging undesirable behaviour with punishment. The rewarding phases of this conditioning processing is known as reinforcement. However, this stimulus-response relationship discounts any mental processes which may be involved in learning. Researchers, including Vygotsky 1962 amongst others, began to criticise the behaviourist approach, as it was seen too teacher centred and directed, void of meaningful learning and the teacher process was focused too much on individual rather than collaborative group work. In addition, the constructivist perspective challenged the implied separation between mental processing and knowledge, which had to be bridged by the role of a teacher. Constructivist Theory The constructivist movement was formed on Piagets (1976) and Vygotsky (1986) work who view learning as the effect of mental construction, whereby learners combine their existing knowledge with new information, to construct meaning and formulate their understanding. The constructivist theory proposes that learning is an active process, a social activity, contextual, centred on constructing meaning and regards the learner as a responsible agent in their knowledge acquisition (Loyens 2007. In constructivist learning, individuals draw in their experience of the world around them and work to make sense of what they perceive in order to build an understanding of what is surrounding them (Harris, 1994). Since constructivism involves learners to interact with their immediate learning environment, learning has been considered to be situation-specific and context-bound activity (McInerney and McInerney, 2002. Constructivism is an umbrella term to encompass the wide range of constructivist perspectives, which can be separated into two branches; cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1976) and social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1986). Both sub-types believe that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals Birenbaum 2003, however through the use of different mediums; either through a series of internal, intellectual stages (cognitive constructivism), or by social interaction including interactions with world based, external experiences (social constructivism). The numerous perspectives on constructivism within these two sub-types could be essentially grouped around a rooted assumption about learning. That is, knowledge is actively constructed by the learner (Birenbaum 2003; Harris and Alexander 1998) Piagets developmental stages theory, which represents cognitive constructivism, presents four age-referenced development stages which provide a theory of gradual cognitive development up to the age of eleven years old. The stages refer to an explicit age range and characterise the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Social constructivism emphasises the role of language in the process of intellectual development. Vygotsky considered dialogue, usually but not always with a more knowledgeable other, as a vehicle by which concepts are considered, shared and developed. The dialogue, which is based on learners pre existing and current knowledge (schemas), is then exploited to develop and construct new ideas and understanding. Vygotsky advocates that the process of learning involves moving into and across a zone of proximal development, which is aided by the intervention of another through support. The zone of proximal development is a theoretical space of understanding which is just above the level of an individuals current understanding. The process of giving support to learners at the appropriate time and level of sophistication to meet the individual needs is termed scaffolding. Scaffolding can allow the movement from one zone to another and assists in the passing through the zone of proximal devel opment. From reviewing the literature, educational researchers which employ these constructivist principles select aspects from both strands of this learning theory (Biggs, 1979, Cunningham, 1996), and use constructivist theories as a generalised term. However, as Mathews and Lui highlight, combining the plethora of constructivist variants is questionable, and generalisations made may have less significance and loss of meaning. Therefore, for the purpose of this assignment, the term constructivism will reflect a collaboration of both social and cognitive strands; however specific branches and the implications of these strands are highlighted where necessary. Critique of learning theories and associated implications upon classroom practice A review of the literature suggests that behaviouristic learning does not offer students the chance to develop deep meaning and understanding (Einworth and Collins), but instead has a tendency to promote superficial learning of skills (Fosnot, 1996). Making a correct response and remembering content does not necessarily imply understanding, and consequently the actual understanding achieved through behavioural approaches is challenged. Hounsell, Entwistle, 1997 conclude that the use of rote memorisation represents a learning approach to a surface level of understanding, whilst establishing connections with current knowledge reflects an approach for a deeper level of understanding. In contrast, from a constructivist perspective, the principle of learning using prior experience is beneficial in promoting a deeper and richer understanding (Pressley, Harris Marks, 1992). Demerici advises that information which is connected to a learners prior experiences is more likely to be retained, explaining higher retention rates when a constructivist approach is adopted. (Demirici). According to Fosnot, the focus of attention in constructivist perspective is concept development and deeper understanding. This research suggests that constructivist approaches lead to a great, richer and deeper understanding. It is therefore plausible to suggest that the quality and depth of understanding associated to a constructivist teaching approach is more likely to exceed that of the behaviourist approach. However, as Entwhistle and Smith (2002) identify, the association between memorisation and surface approach may be weak. Kember, 1996; Watkins Biggs, 1996 reported that memorisation can be used to learn unfamiliar terminology, as the first stage to establishing understanding. This concept, where memorisation is part of meaningful learning, is defined as memorising with understanding (Marton, Watkins,Tang, 1997; Meyer, 2000, and has been conducted by students as a successful revision tool (Entwistle Entwistle, 2001) In addition, (Smith, 2001, 2002a) affirms that rote learning can contribute to understanding. Therefore, it appears that behaviouristic learning approaches can be beneficial for certain tasks such as establishing classroom behaviour (Fulton). Teachers could consider deploying beahviorusitlic approaches to the learning of classroom behaviour, especially for pupils who display anxious tendencies and low motivation (Prittard; Fulton). Those of higher academic ability perceive simplistic drill and practice unsatisfying and dull (Prittard). In addition, some students demand understanding, yet adhering to behaviouristic learning approaches does not accommodate this craving. In other situations, the concepts of learning without understanding can fuel frustration, lead to misconceptions and generate a difficult learning environment (Prittard). Controversially, Fox (2001) suggests that the constructivist theory may imply that remembering is not important, and that learning is solely centred on understanding concepts. However, neither of these are true, and being able to remember knowledge is an important prerequisite of learning. In addition, Biggs, (1998) and Jin and Ortazzi, (1998) have reported that constructivist teaching approaches dont consistently guarantee teaching effectiveness. Instead, traditional, more behaviourist approaches to learning in large classes has proven to be successful internationally, such as in China. Fox, 2001, argues that constructivism neglects the role of memorisation and mechanical learning techniques Arguably, due to the varying nature of meaning which is uncontrollably constructed by students, in some cases, rote learning and memorisation may be more useful when teaching factual concepts and where clarity in understanding is required. Rote learning may be used to help students cope better with some aspects of work that they find difficult. However, teachers must consider that rote learning is not an approach to develop understanding and therefore where possible, should be followed by attempts to encourage understanding. Standard school and classroom routines and expectations for behaviour can be learnt through behaviouristic approaches. In the case of behaviour management, a strategy to quieten the class, such as raising of the hand, or counting down from three could be effectively used. In this case, the stimulus, such as the teacher raising their hand or calling out the number three, must be fully explained to the class. In addition, the stimuli must be fully visible and audible to the students, which is possible with a clearly risen hand or an assertive voice. The response desired, such as a student raising of the hand and silence, must be fully understood by students. It is important that the stimulus-response occurrence should be repeated by the teacher and used regularly. The same strategy should be employed every time the teacher wants to quieten the class, establishing consistency of stimuli and behavioural response. This repeated activation strengthens the pathways, affording for a smoother and faster implementation of the response. . Pupils should be made aware of the negative and positive consequences if they do not respond to the stimuli as desired and the consequences need to be kept consistent. Therefore, consistency of behaviour management strategies is crucial and classroom practice must adhere to the same strategise as the same stimuli is presented for a specific response. Behaviourism relies on reinforcement which is employed to condition the behaviour, and therefore is essentially the tool which brings about learning. Therefore rewards and punishments for behaviours must play a crucial role and actively administered within classroom practice. Behaviourism may therefore stimulate and encourage more use of positive reinforcement which has been a long standing effective classroom practice (Elliott and Busse, 1991 fulton book). However teachers must consider that rewarding children who are already highly motivated may not be as effective, and may actually lead to a loss of interest (Fulton) Rewards and praise have been shown to enhance motivation, and serve as an effective behaviour management tool, however, praising students may not come naturally to teachers. However, behaviourist approaches dont take account of mental cognitive processing involved in learning. In contrast, constructivism emphasises that the learners must develop their understanding for themselves and constructivist researchers advocate that mental activity is the lifeblood of learning and the extent of what is learnt (Howe 1999). Teachers cannot assume that the products of learning are solely the teachers effort and thought; instead learning requires effort on the part of the learner. Teachers need to offer scope of activities where the accustomed effort and activity falls on the learners responsibility. Such opportunities would afford learner engagement and optimise the possibility of effective lasting learning taking place (Prittard). A vast array of supportive literature endorses the success of constructive approaches. Research informs that learning through such constructive mediums, like discussion, participation, practice, are successful and associated with learning gains and knowledge retention. Demirci Yavuz (2009). Dericimi also reported a significant difference in post-test grades and retention learning tests grades, with the constructivist approach being more efficient than the conventional, behaviouristic approach. However, the constructivist theory may imply that all individual differences in learning come down to the consequences of each learners history of learning )Loyens, 2008. Furthermore, although we do learn by acquiring knowledge from our environments through interacting with the external world, Fox highlights that the environment also acts upon learners. That is, we act and react and learning can be achieved from both experiences. However, constructivism appears to fail to acknowledge adaptive instinctive responses as reactive forms of learning (Fox, 2001) and the role of talent in cognitive development. Furthermore, Fox (2001) and Bredo, (2000) argues that constructivism discounts the role of innate, motivational and genetic factors in knowledge construction, which have been proven to play a role in cognitive development and ealrning Carey Spelke, 1994). Another assumption refers to an epistemological assumption that students actively seek resources and experiences, which are anchored by their pre-existing knowledge. In addition, it is assumed that learners utilise the construed data to actively construct their knowledge (Renkl). Therefore, this approach to learning relies on students encountering experiences and applying these experiences to their pre-existing knowledge to develop their understanding. However, such experiences and world-based interactions may not be feasible or available to students due to their lifestyle circumstances. Consequently, teachers need to be aware that understanding and meaning is limited to the individual experiences of the students. In accordance with this assumption, the constructivist theory can explain why pupils conceptions and meaning do vary between each other (Taber, 2000). Given that learning is achieved through the constructing activity of the student, the individual can only understand or kno w what he or she has constructed (Dunn and Cunningham, 1996). Therefore, constructivism may be seen as subjective and relative (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996).. This may lead to marking criteria discrepancies, confusion and inconsistency, and student misconceptions, which do not match reality. In addition, Duffy and Cunningham propose that if the constructions and meanings are different amongst students, the little shared understanding may challenge the ease of communication between learners and the class. This may jeopardise the effectiveness of class discussions and social interactions as a tool to enhance learning. Similarly, as construction is activity on part of the learner (Bruner 1966, 1971), what is constructed cannot be controlled by the teacher. Instead the learner has autonomy and self-regulates what understanding is established. Therefore the students constructed understanding may not parallel with other students, with reality or with the teachers construction and understanding. Consequently, teachers must not assume that the construction and understanding of a concept is universal between all students. Instead teachers must actively access and consider the alternative perceptions and understanding of the learners hence why a transmission approach is fruitless. On the other hand, teachers come into the classroom with their own construction and conceptions of subject content, and according to Patrick 1988, are not neutral. Therefore, a teachers understanding can colour the students understanding, and together, Patrick, 1998 and Marton and Booth (1997) suggested that some teachers moulded the students construction of a concept to align with their concept interpretation. Ellisowths review concludes that the form of understanding impressed onto students is largely dependent on the teachers personal interpretation of the subject content. Therefore, although the constructivist theory assumes that the construction of understanding is the product of the learners interpretation exclusively, the constructivist theory does not account for the interplay between teachers and learners comprehension. Importantly, to help progressive learning and avoid developing misconceptions, teachers need to provide a clear focus and goals, with explicit learning objectives, which are rooted within pupils existing knowledge. The clear objectives allow students to construct their ideas using current knowledge and understand the overarching direction and progression oftheir learning. Activating prior knowledge is important to elicit pre-knowledge, allowing teachers to decipher the conceptual frameworks they are operating within. Teachers need to highlight the links between students existing knowledge and the new subject knowledge, to help the learner form bridges and facilitate their mental construction and cognitive processes (REF). By forming these links, students can activate and recall their pre-existing knowledge, and use this foundation to build and integrate new concepts. Teachers should encourage students to relate new knowledge to current knowledge and external experiences, allowing the new subject content to become embedded within the existing knowledge structures, contributing to or amending to the students schema. Since learning constructively is based on the addition of new content to current knowledge, the learner must have sufficient levels of understanding before new content can be used to construct more complex meaning and progress. Teachers and educators need to consider that new content cannot be built up until the foundations, such as current knowledge, is secured. To accommodate these pre-requisites of learning, the individuals knowledge needs to be continually assessed. As a regular classroom practice, formative assessment could be used as a regular approach to assess existing and new understanding, before moving to the next lesson. Formative assessment is a regular, informal mode of assessment, allowing teachers to monitor students progress, gain an appreciation of what has been learnt and adapt their teaching practices to optimise further learning (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Accordingly, given that learning is an active and evolving processes, formative assessment can be used by teachers to assess, monitor, challenge unclear perspectives and adapt classroom practices to accommodate the constructivist principles of learning. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that constructivist approaches to learning favour the use of formative assessment and may prompt its use in the classrooms, which Lamon, 2001 reports as being more valuable. Since formative assessment alone is associated with learning gains, (Black and Wiliam 1998), learning is positively influenced indirectly via adopting teaching strategies which are aligned to learning constructively. Formative assessment may be undertaken through questioning, teacher and pupil discussion, peer assessment and interaction with peers. Formative assessment will also identify pupils individual learning needs, supporting teachers conduct in differentiation to assure pupils are moving forward, across their ZPD and optimise learning gains. Formative assessment can be achieved in the classroom, through discussion, questioning, peer assessment, self-assessment and feedback. However, with behaviourism, the opportunities for feedback are confined to only whether the response desired is correct or not. There is little scope for learning, or how to improve in order to meet the desired response. Therefore, under behaviourist approaches, feedback cannot be used for learning purposes, therefore opportunities for assessment for learning, which have shown to enhance learning, may not be fruitful. Consequently, limited feedback combined with the objective outcomes of behaviourist approaches mean that individual student needs are not necessarily part of the formulae when considering teaching strategies and subject content. The need to consider individual needs is undeniable, therefore such constraints of feedback extent presents a multitude of problems to the teaching and learning of students. When constructing new concepts and developing understanding, reviewing and reflecting on what has already been learnt also helps to establish and secure students previous knowledge. In addition, by asking what students understand before embarking on a new concept would help students form links between new and previous knowledge (Fulton). This reviewing could be done as a starter, but also plays a role at the end of the lesson, forming a plenary. Teachers should consider, incorporate and plan for well managed plenary to consolidate knowledge. Time to reflect upon what has been undertaken, the processes and the content gives the opportunity for internalisation and for a deeper level of understanding to be developed. Similarly, learning is most effective when learners become engaged, which means that teachers need to adopt an active approach to learning and involve engaging tasks to promote learning in the classroom. Learning using authentic tasks, which allow pupils to relate to their own experience inside and outside the classroom (Selinger, 2001) increases the probability of engagement with the task and supports findings that learning in a familiar context is most effective. Authentic tasks are likely to hold the attention and interest of children, and lead to a deeper level of engagement than with non-authentic or less authentic tasks (Fulton). Favourably, the constructivist principles match those fundamentals associated with effective learning. This active perspective of constructive learning (Phillips, 1995) is often contrasted with behaviourist stimulus-response relationship, which has been defined as a passive view in learning. However, reading and listening are included within this constructive approach to teaching, which could be argued to be more passive approaches. Whilst this suggests that all cognition is active, to talking and writing, listening and reading are relatively passive. Traditionalists do not deny the importance of dialogue, and this may be utilised in questioning and answering, it is more that behaviourists place greater emphasis on knowledge and on the teacher as being knowledgeable, rather than learners and their existing knowledge (Fox). A balance is needed between emphasis on the teachers and learners, since too much emphasis on either part can lead to prescriptions for teaching which may ignore the students needs or dismiss the teachers as a significant resource of knowledge. An active learning approach can be achieved by encouraging students to explore concepts and ideas, and to follow their instincts (Wray and Lewis, 1997). Given that exploration can promote sequential development of ideas, it is likely to assist in the construction of new knowledge; the roots to constructivism. Classroom practice could be based on a discovery-based approach Huitt, 2004;, where students can find answers out for themselves, answer their own questions through experimenting with new ideas and discuss their beliefs and thinking patterns with their peers. Importantly, engaging with each other reflects social interactions, which can be a vehicle to develop understanding using social interaction. Unlike behaviourist approaches where the teacher is the primary resources of knowledge and is influenced by their interests and perspective; knowledge construction offers the opportunity of learning to become dynamic and varied, opposed to being static and prescribed (Sudizna). The use of resources promotes more interactive learning and interest, which are both shown to positively influence learning. Behaviourist approaches have been criticised for not addressing this dynamic nature of learning as its theory assumes a static and standardised view of knowledge learning. Supported by Winn 1990, student knowledge is dynamic and changes, that is knowledge and skills are different before learning to after instruction, and behaviourism does not take this into account. In addition, behaviourism theory does not appreciate that students come into classrooms with prior knowledge. Conversely, the constructivist theory acknowledges that pre-existing knowledge is requisite of learning and that students enter classrooms with pre-conceptions, knowledge and beliefs which they deploy in constructing new understanding. (Jones, Carter, Rua, 1999) As already discussed, scaffolding is crucial for the learner to pass through their zone of proximal development, and can be undertaken by the teacher. Scaffolding can be practiced in the classroom in many ways, and teachers need to appreciate that this is fundamental to the educational progression of students and how this may be achieved. Support materials need to be widely available, such as a writing frame to support a particular style of prose, or a list of words to help in the process of completing an exercise, designed to assist understanding The provision of practical apparatus, especially in science, may help to explain the solution to a problem and is an engaging approach. Students can evidence reality and attach a sense of perspective and reality to their learning. Given the exploratory nature of constructivism, classroom practice needs to be supportive and generate an environment where the student feels safe to ask for help and comfortable in approaching the teacher. The teacher must be aware of the different supportive needs of the class, and meet these through differentiation and allowing time for class discussion, misconceptions and any lack of understanding. To help the teacher identify those who need more support than others, formative assessment can be incorporated to highlight the students individual needs that need to be addressed. Ultimately, this will allow tasks to be designed and geared towards the individuals learning ability. Unlike, behaviourism theories, constructivist theory accounts for the role of social learning and potential of interaction and recognises the importance of social interaction (Phillips, 1995). Incorporating social interaction opportunities, using language as a medium to construct ideas in groups of varying sizes, both with and without the teacher are encouraged and popular in classroom practice today (Jones and Brader-anjerie, 2002). Dialouge is proposed to constitue a crucial component of the constructivism paradigm ((Greeno et al. 1996; (Steffe and Gale 1995).Loyens, 2008. Discussion is fundamental and can be used through augmenting, debating, discussing concepts, teacher questioning and pupils presenting. Teachers should encourage students to work collaboratively, in pairs or small groups, and allow them to help each other and construct their own meaning in their own words of a concept. Dialogue with others allows additional and alternative perspectives to be taken into account when developing personal conclusions. Different knowledge, points of view and understanding can be given and considered before moving on. Teachers should listen to pupils, and use their words for explaining concepts and draw on other opinions of class members. Constructivist theory also takes into account that learning is contextual. Evidence suggests that learning occurs in real-life contexts and learning is actually linked to a context, as deduced by Macleod and Goldby 2003. Children working with new ideas in a familiar content are more likely to engage with the ideas, than if the same ideas were present in an alien context. Therefore teachers should strive to include more authentic tasks and set learning concepts which are aligned with students familiar contexts. If a learning activity falls beyond the cultural understanding of the learning, then learning is likely to be less successful than if it had been situated in a more familiar setting. .Meaningful contexts for learning are very important; however, what is meaningful for a teacher is not necessarily meaningful for the student. The association between the concept of learning being situated and the need for authentic learning tasks is evidence (McFarlane, 1997). However, the recommended approach to situation learning in meaningful contexts (e.g. Lave Wenger, 1991) has been argued against. Walkerdine, 1988, for example argued that if school learning became situated solely within the lived world of daily experiences, the opportunities for abstract reasoning and reflective activity, which are all constituents of constructivism, would become limited and sacrificed, whilst confining students to their local xxxxxxx? The exactness of the Piaget stage of development has been criticised, that is to say children may pass through the stage, but it is not clear that they will pass through the stages at specific ages, however, as a developmental trail, this theory is useful in teaching practices. Piagets stage developmental theory offers guidance covering the level of complexity that may be expected in a childs thought processes at approximate stages in their development. Whilst Piagets developmental stage theory influences principally primary school teaching practices, given the ages this theory is related to, the appreciation and awareness that c

The Fountain Head: Individualism :: essays research papers

The Fountain Head: Individualism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Individualism, the only element which makes a person's character unique. In the Fountain Head, a character binds true to this belief and goes by the name of Howard Roark. This young architect who had his own viewpoint of the world and how he envisioned it, was condemned by the media and the public by doing so. Roark's lifestyle completely perpendiculates the mundane lifestyle that the average citizen lives. Roark conforms to only what he considers valid in his own conscience. The novel opens the door to lead the way against the oppression of conformity. The environment which Howard was placed into didn't help in his situation to freely express his thoughts on certain subjects. This was mainly made possible by the people who he had come in contact through out the years. Many examples of this type of movement are shown by the actions taken by Roark during his career as an architect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All of the actions taken by Roark had a deep profound effect on one key player in the novel, Toohey. Toohey with all the power he had with the public and through the newspaper, was not able to manipulate Howard into his way of thinking. The general public who read the Banner had been convinced that Toohey new what he was talking about on all subjects. His plan to manipulate the public and gather them as a whole was directly countered with every move that Howard made. One of these major moves was the building of the Stoddard Temple. With the temple, Roark had the freedom to build whatsoever he choose. This gave him a medium to express his viewpoint without having any restrictions. After the delayed unveiling of the temple, it was condemned by the public. At the head of this group was no other than Toohey. He wrote articles in the newspaper on how the temple in no way represented the human spirit. The temple allowed Howard to display his individualism, his uniqueness, and his self being. This temple was looked down upon because it did not conform to the ancient styles of architecture. Due to the amount of uniqueness found in the temple, it opposed the conventional view that life required conformity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Howard's special relationship between himself and Gail came about because of their unique individualism. They both believe in the same ways of thinking and therefore they are very much on the same plane of conscienceless. The reason why Gail conformed to society was to play against their trust in the future. When the Banner first got started, it ran two stories to test which

Investment strategy Essay

Adams discontinuity based investment strategy revolved around making investing in companies which were in in the process of or on the fore of exploiting dramatic and sudden changes in well developed markets. Adams focused on both discontinuities and a targeted investment strategy in his search for above average returns. Adams operationalized his discontinuity based investing method by hiring only engineers as partners, leveraging their technical training in the search of promising markets in which to invest. Overtime ACM’s investment focus evolved to focus on markets which he and his partners were already relatively familiar with and had already recognized as attractive. From a Limited Partner’s perspective Adams strategy in comparable to a growth-investing strategy many fund managers implement in the equity markets. That being said, Adams is searching for method of discontinuity based investing looks to capitalise on a company’s potential growth well before they have reached a large enough size to be listed on the equity market. ACM developed more sophisticated pre-requisites to investment developed overtime, these methods digress from typical investment managers and Private Equity/Venture Capital theories firms. Firstly, ACM was only interested in investing in companies which had business to business relationships with their customers, meaning companies without a retail branch from which to distribute products or services to consumers. Secondly, ACM believed the firm value’s and hence the value of their investment would be driven by return on investment (ROI) of respective business customers. Whilst always remaining focused on the business making us of â€Å"first generation applied technology† or being one of the first companies to use a specific technology for a specific application. A combination of ACM’s investment strategy’s divergence from typical investment theory, as it invested in small companies who’s growth prospects were infinite, focused on ROI of a firm’s business clients and utilise the partners wealth of knowledge and expertise to gear ACM to being highly technology focused allowing for Limited Partners looking for diversification to make significant ground. Not only were investors being exposed to diversification in the form of different investment methodologies, an LP also received exposure to the inherently high growth technology sector, all of which was a fantastic way to gain access to shifts that would create opportunities for start-up companies to become market leaders leading to high returns for investors. The four primary causes of discontinuities 1. Standards   2. Regulation   3. Technology   4. Distribution Adams believed â€Å"Market due diligence is the only due diligence you can do independent of a transaction. † A unique part of the ACM strategy was the need for unanimous firm agreement upon the industry or market before individual companies were considered for investment. This was based on the premise of top down analysis, meaning that only when market or industry based analysis showed potential for a discontinuity based investment would further research be conducted to find viable target companies. In addition, the inclusion of a Discontinuity Roundtable, consisting of twenty industry experts and observers that periodically met with the ACM partners to identify and discuss market discontinuities, provides a comprehensive and systematic approach to identifying investment opportunities in the market, and makes ACM more attractive as an investment partner.

Melanophores and Microtubule Monorails: Insights Into Rapid

Fish and amphibians are able to change their color rapidly in response to a change of their surroundings. This phenomenon is done by melanophores, containing a pigment cell called melanin, being travelled along microtubules in their cells (Levi, Serpinskaya, Gratton, & Gelfand, 2006, p. 318). A microtubule, which is made of proteins located in cytoskeleton, is one of three filaments that is long, hollow stiff tube and responsible for intracellular transport. This transport system is driven by kinesin and dynein in microtubules and myosin in actin filaments, which are called motor proteins. Gross, Tuma, Deacon, Serpinskaya, Reilein, & Gelfand, 2002, p. 855). To understand how those movements along microtubules can make the rapid colour change possible, it is necessary first to find out how each component mentioned above carries out their roles in detailed in their specific area. Melanosomes move along microtubules by protein motors throughout the cell by aggregation and dispersion and the direction of their traveling is also changed frequently.In microtubules, most kinesins move towards the plus-end of the microtubule, which is called dispersion and dyneins move towards the minus-end of the microtubule, which is called aggregation. (Bouzat, Levi, & Bruno, 2012, p. 1). These dispersion and aggregation of melanosomes are affected by certain hormones such as melatonin and MSH and it make the color of their skin become darker or lighter depending on where they are (Bouzat et al. p. 10). One significant discovery is that those microtubule- and actin-based transport systems are in a tug-of-war.For instance, microtubule-based transport system can be altered by a loss of myosin function, which is actin-based transport system (Gross et al. , 2002, p. 855). This competition regulates their transport functions without a hitch and thus, it allows the movement along microtubules to constantly go on. Due to traveling of melanophores through those two filaments in cytoskeleton by motor proteins, fish, amphibian and reptiles are able to change their color very rapidly. Those are at any times ready for a response to a change of their surroundings and it directly happens as soon as they get something to trigger those functions start working.

Definition and Examples of Ethos in Classical Rhetoric

Definition and Examples of Ethos in Classical Rhetoric In classical rhetoric, ethos is a persuasive appeal (one of the three artistic proofs) based on the character or projected character of the speaker or writer. Also called  ethical appeal or ethical argument. According to Aristotle, the chief components of a compelling ethos are goodwill, practical wisdom, and virtue. As an adjective: ethical or ethotic. Two broad types of ethos are commonly recognized: invented ethos and situated ethos.  Crowley and Hawhee observe that rhetors can invent a character suitable to an occasion- this is  invented ethos. However, if  rhetors  are fortunate enough to enjoy a good reputation in the community, they can use it as an ethical proof- this is  situated ethos (Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. Pearson, 2004). Pronunciation EE-thos Etymology From the Greek, custom, habit, character Related Terms IdentificationImplied AuthorLogos and PathosPersonaPhilophronesisPhronesis Examples and Observations A Universal Appeal Everyone makes an appeal to ethos if only an ethos of choosing never to stoop to such matters as ethos. No speech with intent is non-rhetorical.  Rhetoric is  not everything, but it is everywhere in  the speech of human  arguers. (Donald N. McCloskey, How to Do a Rhetorical Analysis, and Why. New Directions in Economic Methodology, ed. by Roger Backhouse. Routledge, 1994) Projected Characters Im not a doctor, but I play one on TV. (1960s TV commercial for Excedrin)I made my mistakes, but in all of my years of public life, I have never profited, never profited from public service- I earned every cent. And in all of my years of public life, I have never obstructed justice. And I think, too, that I could say that in my years of public life, that I welcome this kind of examination  because people have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I am not a crook. I have earned everything I have got. (President Richard Nixon, news conference in Orlando, Florida, November 17, 1973)It was a highly inconvenient thing for them in our debates that I was just a country boy from Arkansas and I came from a place where people still thought two and two was four. (Bill Clinton, speech at the Democratic National Convention, 2012)If, in my low moments, in word, deed or attitude, through some error of temper, taste, or tone, I have caused anyone discomfort, created pain, o r revived someones fears, that was not my truest self. If there were occasions when my grape turned into a raisin and my joy bell lost its resonance, please forgive me. Charge it to my head and not to my heart. My head- so limited in its finitude; my heart, which is boundless in its love for the human family. I am not a perfect servant. I am a public servant doing my best against the odds. (Jesse Jackson, Democratic National Convention Keynote Address, 1984) Contrasting Views The status of ethos in the hierarchy of rhetorical principles has fluctuated as rhetoricians in different eras have tended to define  rhetoric in terms of either idealistic aims or pragmatic skills. [For Plato] the reality of the speakers virtue is presented as a prerequisite to effective speaking. In contrast, Aristotles Rhetoric presents rhetoric as a strategic art which facilitates decisions in civil matters and accepts the appearance of goodness as sufficient to inspire conviction in hearers...The contrasting views of Cicero and Quintilian about the aims of rhetoric and the function of ethos are reminiscent of Platos and Aristotles differences of opinion about whether or not moral virtue in the speaker is intrinsic and prerequisite or selected and strategically presented. (Nan Johnson, Ethos and the Aims of Rhetoric. Essays on Classical Rhetoric and Modern Discourse, ed. by Robert J. Connors, Lisa Ede, and Andrea Lunsford. Southern Illinois University Press, 1984) Aristotle on Ethos If Aristotles study of pathos is a psychology of emotion, then his treatment of ethos amounts to a sociology of character. It is not simply a how-to guide to establishing ones credibility with an audience, but rather it is a careful study of what Athenians consider to be the qualities of a trustworthy individual. (James Herrick, The History and Theory of Rhetoric. Allyn and Bacon, 2001)Fundamental to the Aristotelian concept of ethos is the ethical principle of voluntary choice: the speakers intelligence, character, and qualities comprehended by goodwill are evidenced through invention, style, delivery, and likewise incorporated in the arrangement of the speech. Ethos is primarily developed by Aristotle as a function of rhetorical invention; secondarily, through style and delivery. (William Sattler, Conceptions of Ethos in Ancient Rhetoric. Speech Monographs, 14, 1947) Ethical Appeals in Advertising and Branding Some types of oratory may rely more heavily on one type of proof than another. Today, for example, we note that a great deal of advertising uses ethos extensively through celebrity endorsements, but it might not use  pathos. It is  clear from Aristotles discussion in Rhetoric, however, that, overall, the three proofs work in conjunction to persuade (see Grimaldi, 1972). Moreover, it is equally clear that ethical character is the lynchpin that holds everything together. As Aristotle stated, moral character . . . constitutes the most effective means of proof (1356a). An audience is just not likely to respond positively to a speaker of bad character: His or her statement of premises will be met with skepticism; he or she will find it difficult to rouse the emotions appropriate to the situation; and the quality of the speech itself will be viewed negatively. (James Dale Williams, An Introduction to Classical Rhetoric. Wiley, 2009)On its face, personal branding as reputation managemen t shares some basic traits with the ancient Greek concept of ethos, which is commonly understood as the art of convincing ones audience that one is prudent or exercises good judgment (phronesis),  is of good moral character (arà ªte), and is acting with good will toward ones audience (eunoia). Historically, scholars of rhetoric have seen the basis of persuasion as a speakers capacity to understand and tailor ones message according to the complexities of social situations and human character. Ethos, broadly speaking, is understood as the rhetorical construction of a speakers character. (Christine Harold, Brand You!: The Business of Personal Branding and Community in Anxious Times. The Routledge Companion to Advertising and Promotional Culture, ed. by Matthew P. McAllister and Emily West. Routledge, 2013) Ethical Proof in Jonathan Swifts A Modest Proposal The specific details by which Swift builds up the ethical proof fall into four categories descriptive of the projector: his humanity, his self-confidence, his competence in the immediate subject of the proposal, and his reasonableness...I have said that the projector is a bit cocksure. He is also manifestly humble and modest. The proposal is a modest one. It is introduced in generally modest terms: I SHALL NOW therefore humbly propose my own thoughts ...; I do humbly offer to public consideration. . . . Swift has blended these two qualities of his projector in such a way that both are convincing and that neither quality overshadows the other. The result is a pleader whose humility is justifiably tempered by the sure knowledge that he has something to offer Ireland, to her everlasting benefit. These are the explicit indicants of the moral character of the pleader; they are reinforced and dramatized by the whole tone of the essay. (Charles A. Beaumont, Swifts Classical Rhetoric. Univer sity of Georgia Press, 1961)