Anatomy and Physiology Ch. 1 Study Guide Essay Example for Free

Anatomy and Physiology Ch. 1 Study Guide Essay Anatomy the study of the form or structure and arrangement of body parts and their relationships Physiology the study of the functions of the body parts or structures and their relationships in maintaining life processes. Levels of Structural Organization The human body consists of levels of structural organization that are associated with one another. There are six levels of structural organization: I. chemical level It is the simplest level and it includes all of the chemical substances essential for maintaining life. These substances are made up of atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Atoms combine to form molecules, which may be simple or complex. Different types of molecules combine to form or~anelles (little organs). Organelles are specific structures that carry out specific functions. 2. cellular level The cell is the basic unit of structure and function and of life. Cells vary in size, shape, and function and may contain many types of organelles. 3. tissue level Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a specific function. There are four major types of tissues in the human body: a. epithelial tissue It is found lining body cavities and covers the surface of the body. It functions in protection, secretion, and excretion. b. connective tissue It is found on the surfaces of and in organs and tissues and functions in protection, support, and attaching organs and tissues to each other and to the walls of body cavities. c. muscle tissue It functions in the movement of body parts and organs, and in the movement of substances throughout the body. There are three major types of muscle tissue: (1) skeletal muscle It is found attached to and covering bones and it functions in body movement. (2) cardiac muscle It is located in the heart wall and functions in the contraction and relaxation of the heart as it beats. (3) smooth muscle It is located in the walls of internal or visceral organs and it functions in moving substances throughout the body. d. nervous tissue It is located in the brain and spinal cord, and extends to various tissues and organs. It functions in transmitting electrical or nerve impulses from the external and internal environments to the brain and spinal cord where it is interpreted and a response occurs. 4. organ level Organs are groups of two or more types of tissue working together to perform a specific function. 5. organ system level ~ sTstems are groups of organs that work closely together to perform a common function. There are eleven organ systems in the human body: 6. organismal level It is the highest level of structural organization and it consists of groups of organ systems working together to maintain body structure and function. Organ systems work together to maintain an internal environment that is fairly constant, stable, or balanced. This is referred to as homeostasis (to stay the same). Changes do occur, but within very narrow ranges or limits. Homeostasis Body parts or structures function efficiently in maintaining metabolic processes and when the survival needs are within certain limits or optimum levels. The survival needs include: water, oxyqen, nutrients, an appropriate bod~ temperature, and atmospheric pressure. Water is necessary for chemical reactions, excretion, and secretion. Oxyqen is required for many of the metabolic reactions that break down nutrients and provide energy. Nutrients provide energy for cells and cell processes. Bod~ temperature must be maintained within a certain range for chemical reactions and cell processes to perform efficiently. If the body temperature falls too low or increases too high, chemical reactions will slow down or may stop. Atmospheric pressure is the force of air on the body surface by the weight of air. It is important in breathing and in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs. To maintain homeostasis there are control mechanisms. Control mechanisms consist of three parts: i. receptor It responds to sensory stimuli from the internal and external environments. The information is sent along afferent pathways to the control center. 2. control center It consists of the brain and spinal cord which interpret and analyze the information and determine an appropriate response. Information is then sent along efferent pathways to the effector. 3. effector It consists of tissues, organs, or glands that perform a motor response to the original stimulus that was received by the receptor. The response involves a feedback mechanism. If the response slows down or inhibit~ the stimulus it is a neqative feedback mechanism. If the response speeds up or enhances the stimulus, it is a positive feedback mechanism. Most control mechanisms for homeostasis in the human body are negative feedback mechanisms.

Egon Schiele: Influences on and Impact in Art

Egon Schiele: Influences on and Impact in Art Was Egon Schiele ahead of his time or just in touch with it? A master of expressionism or practising pornographer and paedophile? What was the driving force behind his most memorable images; those being his nudes and self portraits? Looking at economic, social, personal influences, was he milking the times and environment for self gain or was he a hormone raging self absorbed youngster finding himself? Introduction Expressionism is described in typically polemic terms in the preface for the 1912 exhibition in Cologne, featuring new artists of this genre. In it, it says: â€Å"the exhibition is intended to offer a general view of the newest movement in painting, which has succeeded atmospheric naturalism and the impressionist rendering of motion, and which strives to offer a simplification and intensification in the mode of expression, after new rhythms and new uses of colour and a decorative or monumental configuration – a general view of that movement which has been described as expressionism.† Schiele certainly fulfilled the loose terminologies expressed above, as a great deal of the subject matter he explored, primarily his nudes and his self-portraits, were concerned with the constant need to redefine and explore different ways of expressing these themes; a simplification and intensification in the mode of expression. At times, Schiele reduces the broad sentiments of Impressionism to a single streak; he cuts out all that is unnecessary, reducing his backgrounds to a simple wash of colour, and thus focuses on his primary interest, that of the human subject. Schiele was also extremely concerned with the notion of self in his work; he is frequently cited in critical work as a narcissist and, with over 100 self portraits to his name, each of which appear to be concerned with showing himself in various, often contradictory ways, this would appear to be true. But, beyond simple glorification of the self, Schiele seems to be doing something else in his self-portraiture. By picturing himself in such a varied and at times contradictory way, Schiele in turn questions his own authenticity, and attempts to align himself with that great canon of artist in society, as a contemporary Promethean or Christ-like figure. â€Å"Allegory, unmasking, the presentation of a personable image, and close scrutiny of body language as influenced by the psyche, all met most palpably where Schieles eye looked most searchingly – in his self-portraits, his odyssey through the vast lands of the self. His reflections on and of himself filled a great hall of mirrors where he performed a pantomime of the self unparalleled in twentieth century art.† Indeed, the ambiguity of Schiele as regards himself is a dense and complex subject, which regards both â€Å"truth†, and a more subjective appraisal of art in Viennese society during the time in which Schiele was painting. Schiele was also concerned with breaking down and fundamentally opposing the traditions of Viennese culture and art which, at the time, were largely very conservative in opinion. In his art, Schiele would strike out at the culture that celebrated Biedermeier art and the slavish reproduction of classical works that he was taught at Viennas Academie der Bildunden Kunste (Viennas Academy of Fine Art), which he was admitted to on the grounds of his exceptional talent as a draughtsman. Most prominently, he would break these rules, and was thus ahead of his times with his extremely controversial oeuvre, which broke from these schools almost completely, both stylistically and in terms of the subject matter that they conveyed. But it is extremely difficult, if not impossible when considering any artist to extricate him / her from the times in which he / she was born. An artist is inevitably bound to the world around him / her, and thus, it is important to consider the economic, social and cultural trends that were prevalent at the time. Schiele was part of the expressionist movement – which immediately set itself up against the heralded principals of art in Vienna, by setting up its own artist-led business entities, using the work and the life of Klimt as an example. I will expand upon the layered history that led up to Viennese expressionism, and hope to extrapolate the extent to which Schiele was paving the way for a new generation of artists. Schieles art was especially controversial in its subject matter. In his early work especially, unflinching portraits were painted that not only showed Schiele in uncompromising positions, but also subjects such as proletariat children, who were invariably portrayed naked, and painted with a grotesque and sickly eroticism that draws you unerringly into these taboo areas. Whether Schiele was deliberately trying to shock and provoke the modesties of the Viennese public, or whether he was trying to uncover a more universal, spiritual or sexual truth is subject to debate. Overall, in this essay, I will discuss how the history of Vienna impacted upon the work of Schiele, looking at the cultural, social and economic impact of Schiele. I will also look at how Schiele uses the self-portrait, especially how he chooses to either promote, or at least define the prevalent role of expressionist artist in his work. Then I will look at how the abundance of these controversial self-portraits, along with innumerable photographs of Schiele posing, in turn makes Schieles identity in his work more ambiguous. Then I will look at the more pornographic side of Schiele, and question how Schiele, deeply embedded in the cultural and moral codes of the time, reacted entirely against them and established his own, art of â€Å"ugliness†. History Of Viennese Expressionism Fredrick Raphael, in his preface to Dream Story by Arthur Schnitzler, suggests something about the Viennese psyche; he says that: â€Å"In 1866, Bismarcks Prussia destroyed Austro-Hungarys bravely incompetent army at Sadowa. The effect of that defeat on the Viennese psyche cannot be exactly assessed. Austria had already suffered preliminary humiliation by the French, under Louis-Napoleon, but Sadowa confirmed that she would never again be a major player in the worlds game. Yet conscious acceptance of Austrias vanished supremacy was repressed by the brilliance and brio of its social and artistic life. Who can be surprised that Adlers discovery of the inferiority complex, and of compensating assertiveness, was made in a society traumatized by dazzling decline? It was as if the city which spawned Arthur Schinitzler and Sigmund Freud feared to awake from its tuneful dreams to prosaic reality.† Indeed, the times in which Egon Schiele was making his mark on the Viennese establishment was a time where the Viennese art community were at their most conservative, or most susceptible to lapsing into these â€Å"tuneful dreams†. Schieles self-imposed mission, it seemed, was to violently shake these people into a state of consciousness. But that isnt to say that Schiele existed entirely in a vacuum, living entirely by his own rules. Comini stresses that: â€Å"The content of Schieles Expressionism then was a heightened sense of pathos and impending doom, and an acute awareness of the self. Schieles Expressionist form drew from the great European reservoir of Symbolist evocativeness.† So, from a veritable melange of varying influences, Schiele managed to get his form, which combined that of exceptional draughtsman, with an inescapable desire for portraying the artistry of â€Å"ugliness†, something of which Schiele was something of a pioneer. In 1897, Schiele joined the painting class of Christian Griepenkerl; who was a deeply conservative artist devoted to neoclassicism, or the slavish devotion and replication of classic works of art. This involved long hours copying the works of the Old Masters at Viennas Academy of Fine Art. Schiele was enrolled for his superior draughtsmanship, but he was eventually alienated from it because he didnt see the relevance or the importance in neoclassicism. Thus, he became something of a troublemaker to the establishment, and was eventually forced out. This was echoed 100 years hence by the Romantics; an art group who pursued a loose programme intended to reinvest art with emotional impact. The Romantics, however, proved too unpalatable to the Viennese citizenry, who instead preferred the work of Biedermeier artists. Kallir says: â€Å"On the whole, Germans proved more receptive to Romanticism than Austrians who shied away from such intense expressions of feeling and took refuge in the mundane cheer of the Biedermeier.† She goes on to say: â€Å"Biedermeier [†¦] was geared more to the applied than to the fine arts, though in all its myriad incarnations it promoted the personal comforts of the middle class Burger. Biedermeier painting revolved around idealized renditions of everyday life, scenes of domestic bliss, genre pictures portraying ruddy-cheeked peasants, and picturesque views of the native countryside.† Being born into this highly stringent, conservative environment must have shaped Schieles defiance somewhat, as Schiele not only seems to break with what was established in Vienna as profitable art, but he almost seems to occupy exactly the opposite role. Even in works by Klimt, who was deemed controversial at the time, there are still elements of decorative palatability that makes his work visually and aesthetically appealing. Schiele seems to be deliberately working against this formula; which was brave considering that art, at the time, depended on patronage and buyers to actually sustain a profit. Schiele didnt seem concerned in the slightest that his work wouldnt get a buyer. In fact, the market is abandoned almost completely. In Schieles early work, art becomes â€Å"ugly†; his figures are pallid and atrophied; the composition of the pieces are unconventional and thus attack the sensibilities of the audience. Upon his break from Viennas Academy, and much akin to Klimt, whom he admired and painted on a number of occasions, Schiele set up his own group, entitled simply, â€Å"The New Art Group.† This was similar to Klimts route, as he set up the Viennese Secession, of which Schiele would play a part, which came from and used the tried and tested formula of the Genossenschaft betdender Kunster Wiens (Vienna Society of Visual Artists), a project financed by Emperor Franz Josef as a means of promoting art in the city. However, this system was not without its drawbacks. â€Å"Its progressive potential was [†¦] undermined by a policy of majority rule, which generally granted victory to the conservative faction. Within this context, the societys role as dealer was particularly disturbing to the younger, more forward-thinking minority, from whom exclusion from major exhibitions could have adverse financial consequences.† Similarly, the capitalist nature of art, coupled with the conservatism of the market made for a very difficult time for the progressive artist, and perhaps was a reason behind why Schiele opposed the artistic community with such fervency and vitriol, and often resorted to shock tactics and self-publicity to get himself heard. Klimts Secession operated on similar principles to the Vienna society: â€Å"†¦the Secession [†¦] was principally a marketing agent for its members work.† Thus, again it proved difficult for the younger, more radical artists to break through, despite Klimts support. Later, funds from patronage dwindled, so it was necessary for artists to seek out new markets. â€Å"The withdrawal of official patronage pre-empted the Secessionists to seek new ways of generating the sales and commissions necessary to keep them in business.† Ultimately, this meant that socialist, and personal art became more prominent a theme. The monumental, allegorical themes that Klimt and Schiele tended to attack (although Schieles work was deeply personal, it was also very monumental and took a number of influences from Klimt and symbolist art), no longer had a substantial market. Klimts decorative style, coupled with his established name, could still sell work to his established clients. Schiele, however, had no such luck, and it was only in 1918, the last year of his life, that Schiele managed to break even with his work. Although Schiele did not seem overly concerned with the economic potential of his works; in fact, he even seemed to equate poverty and suffering to the role of an artist in general, and Schiele was probably one of the most uncompromising artists of the twentieth century in terms of pandering to a particular audience; it is nevertheless important to consider economics, social and cultural conditions because, Schiele, by setting himself and his role as an artist in direct opposition to the establishment, also put himself in the long-standing tradition of artist in opposition to mainstream society. Kallir points out that: â€Å"The Secession, the Galerie Muethke, and the Wiener Werkstatte [, the latter two being establishments set up in the wake of the gradual reduction of patronage funds and a need to find and establish new markets for art], in the formative first decade of this century were peculiar products of their times that shared common aspirations and limitations. It was important to all concerned that these entities, although ostensibly committed to marketing art, were artist-run.† So, although economics were a concern in art, they were not necessarily, as dictated previously with the majority run Vienna Society of Visual Artists, primarily about making money and transforming the Viennese art scene into a profitable industry. Economics was an incidental concern, only foisted upon the establishment by chronic necessity: â€Å"The artists evinced a tacitly accepted loathing for art-as-business (Schiele could be particularly eloquent on this point) and a determination to place aesthetic considerations above economic ones.† So, as is fairly obvious from the art that he made, Schiele was against the motive of making money from art. But this reveals an interesting contradiction that plagued expressionist and other, later artists seeking to make a living from art at the same time as challenging the social and economic processes that ultimately fund its creation: â€Å"[I]f the primary goal [of these entities] was to serve the artistic community, these organisations could not entirely ignore their secondary purpose: to sell art.† So, Schiele, like many other artists, was cut between a requirement for money (which was especially apparent now that the former staple of patronage monies had all but dried up), and a requirement to express uncompromisingly his artistic expression. Schiele would not settle for the former, and instead pursued the latter with a vigour and an intensity that, at the time, was quite extraordinary. Schiele and Self-Portraiture. Of all the artists in the 20th century, or indeed any century, Egon Schiele was probably one of the most self-conscious. But, in Schiele, the self is a very problematic subject. Schoeder suggests: â€Å"In his self-portraits, Schiele shows himself as wrathful, with a look of spiritual vacancy, or as if racked by a severe spasm of hysteria; or arrogantly looking down his nose, with head tossed back; or apprehensively or naively peering out of the picture. Which Schiele is the real Schiele?† Schiele seems to instinctively divide himself into differing components, but also, he uses art to singularly pursue his own political views of the role of artist, in many ways using self-portraiture to assert, rather than fragment his own personality. The ambiguity with which Schiele regards himself can be looked at in a number of ways. 1. The Artist-as-Martyr It could be argued that Schiele was simply posing, or playing the varying roles of artist to gratify his ego. This is interesting because Schiele was definitely working toward a specific identity as artist. In 1912, Schiele was arrested for three days for publishing obscene works where they could be displayed to children. An item of his work was subsequently burned in the courtroom. In prison, he creates a number of interesting works of art, that are especially interesting because their titles read like manifestoes. Titles such as Hindering the Artist is a Crime, It Is Murdering Life in the Bud! (1912), For Art and for My Loved Ones I Will Gladly Endure to the End! (1912), and Art Cannot Be Modern: Art Is Primordially Eternal (1912). Certainly, judging from these titles, Schiele definitely has a number of ideas regarding the artist, his specific role, and what separates a true artist from a charlatan. Schiele, in his highly polemical, hyperbolic painting titles, equates the artist with suffering and martyrdom, suggesting that he will â€Å"endure†, and immediately glorifying the artist as a giver of life and eternal well being to the masses. Schroeder goes on to say: â€Å"Behind these works lies the idealization of suffering in the Romantic cull of genius, as updated in the last years of the nineteenth century through the writing of Friedrich Nietzsche and through the posthumous response to Arthur Schopenhauer. [†¦] The turn of the century saw the apogee of the Artist-as-Martyr legend, in which the relationship between suffering and greatness draws so close that the pose of suffering may in itself constitute a claim to the higher grades of artistic initiation.† So, the implication here is that Schiele was indeed acting a specific role of artist, that he was assuming a specific â€Å"pose of suffering† that was in many ways an act of fulfilling his societal role as an artist. Certainly these roles of suffering were explicit in his work. In Self-Portrait Standing (1910), Schiele portrays himself as contorted and thin; his face is twisted into an ugly grimace, and the colours used are mottled, pale and rotten. His arms are deformed and his positioning is unnatural and forced. His eyes are hollow and there is no context to the portrait; the background is a simple cream colouring. To exaggerate his alienation yet further, Schiele highlights his body with a shock of white. This has the effect of drawing the subject even further out of his environmental world, and, along with the forced hand gestures, serves to make us see the subject as an exhibit, rather than as part of a natural world. As Schroeder points out: â€Å"On the white expanse of paper, they do not exist: they are exhibited.† In his principal work, Hermits (1912), he paints himself with Gustav Klimt, whose own break with neoclassicism and ornate style of expressionism was a major influence on Schieles early work. Klimt is seen as asleep, or else resting on the shoulders of Schiele, who stands in front of him in a large black cloak. Mitsch suggests that in Hermits, â€Å"[s]eldom has the human body been visualised so exclusively as a materialization of spiritual forces [†¦].† But the painting is called Hermits, which suggests something about the role of artist that Schiele observed, although the painting certainly displays elements of the spiritual; as Steiner suggests, â€Å"he presents the master and himself in a picture where two male figures in monklike garb and with aureoles about their heads are seen on a monumental plinth.† In Hermits, Schiele and Klimt both look glum; Schiele stares defiantly back through the painting. The vast black cloak serves to homogenize the body of Klimt and Schiele, and thus portrays the role of the artist in general as one of blackness, of a biblical darkness. But, the title is more secular: Steiner goes on to say that: â€Å"We see Hermits (as the painting is called) and not saints, and the tone is no longer mystical and remote but one of delicate equilibrium between the two men – the elder, Klimt, deathlike, and the younger, Schiele, looking grim, doubtless because the artist leads a solitary life, condemned by society to suffer.† So, Schiele, in a very modernist way, is simultaneously divorcing himself from the establishment of the religious school of Neoclassicism, but is also contemporising it. In similar ways that Freud brought scientific rigour, and secular practice into studies of the human psyche, Schiele was in turn taking religion out of mystical, allegorical artwork, and instead putting himself into it. This artistic position, as forerunner to Klimt, in a sense, emerging from the body of Klimt, but staring out defiantly and uniquely, epitomizes Schieles position. Steiner suggests that: â€Å"At the time that he painted Hermits, Schiele was already seeing himself as a kind of priest of art, more the visionary than the academician, seeing and revealing things that remain concealed from normal people.† 2. The Artist-As-Protean The ambiguity with which Schiele forges his own identity can also be seen in a different way. The variance between different forms of self-portrait merely represent different sides of the Schiele character. This would certainly fit into the Freudian notion of self – as a stigmatized, fragmentary and anarchic collection of different preconceived notions. For instance; Freuds basic notions of Id, Ego and Super-Ego serve to fragment the self – psychoanalysis in general serves to this effect, and, in a number of Schiele self-portraits, he uses the quite unusual system of the double portrait to encapsulate this fragmentation. Fischer makes the point that â€Å"[t]he familiar repertoire of Freudian psychology with its ego and super-ego, conscious and unconscious realms, might equally be applied to these dual self-portraits.† A great deal of photography of Egon Schiele (of which a great deal exists) utilizes the effect of double exposure, thus, a doubling of the self. In one untitled photograph of Egon Schiele , he is seen firstly staring into the distance, while another image of himself looks back, observing himself intently. Steiner says that: â€Å"Schiele countered the sensory fragmentation of the self by means of a multiple self which came little by little to form a visual concept which reconstituted his unity with the world in a visionary way.† Indeed, during the time when expressionism was most active, a serious redefinition was underway, on the secular, theoretical grounds of Nietzsche and Freud, and also due to the cataclysmic human and social catastrophe of the Great War. In Hermann Bahrs 1916 book, simply entitled Expressionism, he says: â€Å"Never was there a time so shaken with so much terror, such a fear of death. Never was the world so deathly silent. Never was man so small. Never had he been so alarmed. Never was joy so far away and liberty so dead.† But he rallies against this bleakness, which is encapsulated in other modernist and expressionist works; works such as Eliots Wasteland and the paintings of Munsch and the German school of expressionism: â€Å"Now necessity cries out. Man cries after his soul, and the whole age becomes a single cry of need. Art, too, cries with it, into the depths of darkness; it cries for help; it cries after the spiritual: that is expressionism.† So, by ploughing the ambiguities of the self, this reading would assume that Schiele was, in many respects, crying â€Å"after his soul†, so to speak; searching among the myriad of different identities available to him, a concrete or at least a compatible sense of self that had eluded him, along with an entire generation of artists dispossessed by the Viennese establishment. The various parts of Schieles meticulous, and almost surgical self-analysis falls into a number of distinct camps, but also seems to, in a more generalised sense, work against the pattern of self-portrait or nudity established by other artists. Up until that time, generally speaking, the nude was seen in a grandiose sense: the painted nude women, such as those in Degas, were painted as Goddesses, resplendently beautiful, radiant, often placed in scenarios that depicted frolicking jollity or natural equilibrium; and the men, who were much rarer in contemporary art, were generally seen as heroic, muscular and noble. Schiele breaks entirely with this long-established tradition. Firstly, the school of nude self-portraiture at the time only comprised of a single person; Richard Gerstl, whose painting Self-Portrait, Naked stood on its own at the time as the only painting to be done of the nude artist. Schroeder points out: â€Å"Just how uncommon is was to depict oneself naked is revealed by the fact that before 1910 only one precedent existed in the whole of Austrian art.† Thus, Schiele was already putting himself in the position of pioneer of a particularly exhibitionist genre. But, in unsheathing the artist of the attire that would previously assign to him his identity, Schiele places a whole new dynamic in the art: the dynamic of the self itself. One of Schieles most important works Seated Male Nude (1910), Schiele portrays himself covering up his own face. Indeed, in most of his self-portraits, especially his early ones, his posture is contorted and manufactured; he is posing and the background again is simply a plain, unembellished white. In Seated Male Nude, Schiele is grossly emaciated, his feet have been cut off, and his nipples and eyes glow red, suggesting that there is a deep demonism within him. He is seen as grotesquely, disturbingly ectomorphic; â€Å"the figure looks as though it has been taken down from a gothic crucifix: it is angular, and looks carved: Schiele was seeing himself as Christ without a loin-cloth. The red highlights of his eyes, nipples, navel and genitals make the body look as if it were glowing from within.† But, also, the red â€Å"glowing from within† also exposes another central tenet of Schieles work – namely, that it gives the appearance that he is hollow inside. Schiele preserved his more allegorical, symbolic works for the medium of oil; paintings such as Hermits discussed earlier, and thus, this hollowness cannot be overlooked as having greater metaphorical meaning, and would suggest the reasons behind why Schieles self-portraiture varied to such a large degree; namely, that the inner self which Schiele was desperate to uncover, was absent, or simply defined as a mad, glowing redness. â€Å"[S]pastic and hunch-backed, or with a rachitic deformation of the ribcage: this was the artist as an image of abject misery – a cripple [†¦] the dirty colouring, with its shrill accents, makes the flesh tones ugly and aberrant. In Seated Male Nude, a self-portrait, the artist mutates into an insect. The absence of feet [†¦] [is] an amputation. This is a mangled soul in a mangled body. We see through the body into the soul.† Indeed, the mangled soul is non-existent, the inside is hollow and empty. So, insomuch as this is similarly affected by social and cultural developments at the time, Schiele is moreover offering a more detailed and theoretically astute reading of the self and warring and dissolute factions. Schroeder says that: â€Å"If all of these self-dramatizations reveal the true nucleus of the painters psyche, then he must have been a fragmented personality, unlikely to escape the diagnostic attentions of the genius Sigmund Freud. The question is just how much of his psyche is conveyed by his self-portraits, either those with grimaces or those that express a frozen resignation? What and whom does Egon Schiele really see in his studio mirror? [†¦] It makes all the difference in the world whether he is observing his own body as an act of direct, emotional self-knowledge or whether in his imagination he is slipping into someone elses role and experiencing his own self as that of another person.† So, that Schiele depicts himself as a variety of different people doesnt necessarily mean that he is living up to a certain artistic function; in a sense, glamorizing the role of the artist as a suffering person. Art As Pornography Schiele has been regarded by many critics as a pornographer. Looking at his paintings, which often draw attention to the genitals, to eroticized regions of the human body, as well as the contorted and mechanistic quality to the nude portraits, which appear twisted and exploited. Schiele was eventually put in prison for his indecency, although this was due to his eccentric practice of showing his work to the friends of the children who were painted, often nude. Schroder suggests that â€Å"[i]n Schieles early pictures of children the objective embarrassment of the models lowly social origins is reinforced by the embarrassment of their obscene nakedness.† This would suggest that the portraits themselves are designed to be as exploitative and as pornographic as possible. The children portrayed are certainly seen in an especially lurid light; and their embarrassment is portrayed by their forced poses, the absence of environment, etc. However, it is often difficult, at the time and later, to extrapolate eroticism from pornography, and in Schiele, this is particularly difficult. Schiele himself denied accusations of pornography, and certainly, the nudes have greater substance and meaning in terms of formulating an Expressionist identity of the self. Mitsch suggests that Schiele â€Å"expresses [in his eroticism] human bondage and is to be understood as a burden that is painful to bear. Aimed, from the beginning, at outspokenness and truthfulness, it assumes almost inevitably a daring form.† So, here difficulty with regarding Schieles output is highlighted. The work is about expressing human bondage, but it is also exaggerated and mutilated and â€Å"outspoken†. So Schiele acts as both pornographer and eroticist, and also strikes out more clearly at exposing the truth behind the body. Schiele himself commented on accusations that his work is pornographic made by his Uncle, by replying in a letter, saying that â€Å"the erotic work of art is scared too.† The painting Reclining Girl In A Blue Dress (1910), establishes this difficulty. In it, a girl is portrayed, leaning back and revealing her genitals. Her genitals are high-lighted in white, and draw the eye to the girls genitals using both composition and colour. The brush-strokes are strikingly crude, almost sketchy. Fischer says that â€Å"[i]t is impossible to defend this picture against the charge of pornography. Even so, Schieles radicalism of form places him beyond too simplistic a categorisation.† He goes on to say: â€Å"He was not merely out to satisfy a shallow voyeuristic impulse. Pubescent lust and delight in discovery, the naà ¯ve symbolism of distinguishing sexual features, and boyish stratagems for looking up girls skirts are combined in the twenty-year-old artists way of viewing the world with the invention of ingenious new forms, which took the Schiele of 1910 a step forward, out of the world of teachers and uncles and into the radical world view of the Expressionist avant-garde. In the years ahead, Schiele pursued this distinctive combination obsessively.† So, according to Fischer, even though his work was pornographic, the forms in which this pornography took and the means by which Schiele painted these pornographic images, allowed us to question the nature of the images and thus elevate them to something beyond pornography. Schiele was certainly obsessed with portraying the self: his images, despite being, at times, shamelessly provocative and deliberately controversial to the conservative Viennese public (the pre-conceived role of an artist to challenge the perception of the ordinary people would stress this, and was a certain depiction of the artist that Schiele would live by), would also put stress on the techniques and the principles applied to the painting in order to elevate it beyond mere titillation or voyeurism. In his nudes, Schiele was definitely looking to get closer to his, and societies view of the human condition in the confusing wake of secularism, the transmogrification of belief toward the self (in Freud and Nietzsche, for instance), and the selfs role in society. Naturally his view is not a particularly optimistic one, and he is frequently out to establish the pain in the heart of the self – his cut-off, mutilated and distorted figures serve to expose the more desultory aspects of the self, and thus his images appear less as pornographic, and more as pieces that actually challenge and oppose the traditionally porno

Trainee Accountant Recruitment :: Essays Papers

RECRUITMENT OF TRAINEE ACCOUNTANTS Finding ways to support improvements on traditional approaches is a constant challenge to any field and control professionals, who must be open and receptive to change. Not being afraid of change isn't enough, however; accountants must be excited and motivated about new ways of doing things. With the introduction of Human Resources, people in an organization have taken a new role. Long gone were the days when an accountant is a clerk. In today’s day and age, an employee is an asset for that company. They are a major investment and companies thrive in protecting their interests and development. Human Resources (HR) have developed and now is a full fledged field. Most companies have some sort of Human Resource management. Basically where there is hiring and firing, there is Human Resources activities involved. Whether it is a small firm or a large corporation, Recruitment and Selection is needed in every kind of organization. HR defines the organization objective to its employees. It makes the people involved to be part of the organization and work towards a goal. It also enhances ones responsibilities more clearly. The job activities and profile will be to work towards organizational goal yet at the same achieving personal objectives. Hence, in HR employee’s development is very important whether by relationship building or through training. All kinds of skills are taken into accounts and measure before an employee is hired. Career plans and objectivity in life is top priority as this will determines whether the prospective employee is a good investment or not. A major role of HR is Recruitment and Selection, which will be the topic of this article. The Recruitment and Selection procedure in any organization is most important, as they are the foundation for which the company makes the decision of hiring and invests in an individual. Selection means to choose the best candidate for a particular job, keeping in mind how his goals are in tune with the organization’s goals. HR has made this process of selection sophisticated and more challenging. Educational background and years of experience are no longer the only major pre-requisite. What people know is less important than who they are. Hiring, is not about finding people with the right experience. It's about finding people with the right mindset. These companies hire for attitude and train for skill. A mix of ten different intelligence’s: deductive, inductive, mechanical, memory, numerical, perceptual, reasoning, spatial, verbal, and vocabulary.

Schizophrenia Essay -- essays research papers

I have always been interested in my pattern of thinking. Often I have always thought that people don’t use their imagination as much as I do. I have always been into the darker side of life, watching horror movies and listening to heavy metal etc. Obviously this is all fantasy though; demons aren’t really going to rip me to pieces like in the movies. Some people can’t differentiate reality from fantasy though. I know in my head that I am able to think like most psychopaths but I am able to tell the difference between right and wrong. What I mean by that is I understand where they’re coming from and how they see the world because at times I feel that way. I want to why I am able to control my thoughts (as sick as they may be) and actions as to where they can’t Fear plays a major role in the actions of most people. People who have psychotic episodes tend to be less fearful of the world around them. For example whereas most people would scream at a horror movie they wouldn’t even flinch. That’s how I seem to be (although I’m used to horror movies since it’s the more creative genre of films). Does fear actually help someone to maintain his or her sanity? If they had no fear would that mean that they would be able to do anything no matter how crazy it sounds? Better yet, does everyone who lacks fear turn out to be psychopath? I lack most of the fears that other people have but I’m not clinically insane. These are the questions I will try to answer in determining what causes someone to become completely detached from the world around them. A lack of fear isn’t enough to determine if someone is a potential psychopath. Freud believes that our fears are stored in our unconscious mind. We never actually know what our fears are and yet they’re there. He believed that â€Å"each of us has a censor operating somewhere within or nervous systems, whose chief task is to prevent sexual or other types of threatening impulses or memories from breaking through to consciousness to embarrass us† (Human Behavior 291). I think that theory is complete nonsense since I am aware at all times what is going on in my head. To simply put it, if you know you’re afraid of something then it’s not unconscious. A theory with more credibility comes from Pavlov. His theory is based on conditioning. Conditioning is when the fear is learned over time through certain key events. Pavlov describes this ... ...reactions and I enjoy acting weird.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe that the reason why I am not a schizophrenic is because I am able to control my fears and anxiety. The key word here is control. Without it you’re nothing but a machine made up of flesh and bone. Schizophrenics don’t have control over their thoughts or actions and that is why they seem out of touch with reality. Most of this control has to do with fear and anxiety. For example: any normal person would be scared if the F.B.I. was after them but people with a disorder seem devoid of any emotion. They do however acknowledge the content of the event but still seem oblivious to the world around them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Instead of using medication or seeing a psychotherapist, the best way to treat this disorder might be to detect it from an early age. Naturally we will still have to administer medication and send them to a professional. Too often though people without schizophrenia are being diagnosed with having it and vise versa. Along with the drugs I think we should treat them the same as we would someone with high anxiety or any type of phobia. That is if doctors are willing to take the time to.

My Family: A Subculture :: Sociology Sociological Papers

My Family: A Subculture Everyone in the world belongs to a subculture. Each subculture has its own sets of traditions, relics, and artifacts. Relics and artifacts are symbolic, material possessions important to one's subculture. Relics are from the past; artifacts are from the present. These traditions, relics, and artifacts help shape the personalities of individuals and how they relate with others. Individuals know about these items through storytelling in the subculture. Families are good examples of subcultures. My family, a middle-class suburban Detroit family of Eastern European heritage, has helped shape who I am through story telling about traditions, artifacts, and relics. Throughout my life, I've heard many different stories about my family. Because of these stories, I know about my background, and they have helped form my identity. Randall Bass, professor of English at Georgetown University, agrees that stories help shape people's identities. Bass states that, "Individuals derive their sense of identity from their culture, and cultures are systems of belief that determine how people live their lives" (Bass 1). Cultural stories about family history, religion, nationality, and heritage help influence people's behavior and beliefs. Identities of different people come from their cultures. Story telling begins at home. Stories help connect people to their systems of beliefs. They sculpt people's lives by giving them a model of how to live. People receive their earliest knowledge from different stories.(Bass) One great story my family has told me is my family's history. My maternal grandmother's parents came to the United States from Ukraine by boat around 1906 or 1907. They initially settled in Export, PA, because they had relatives and friends living there. My grandmother was born in 1921 and was the seventh of eight children. A year after she was born, they moved to Warren, OH, where they stayed until my grandmother graduated from high school. The family's religion was Ukrainian Orthodox. My grandmother grew up speaking Ukrainian and English. Ukrainian was spoken in the home, and English was spoken at school. My grandmother started kindergarten at the age five knowing no English. She picked up the English language from her classmates. My grandmother's family did not own a car. Every Easter, they walked about seven miles to go to church. My grandmother grew up during the depression. She was the only girl in her family to own a doll from a store. All of her sister's dolls were homemade.

Gender and Sexuality

Gender and sexuality can be comprehended through social science. Social science is â€Å"the study of human society and of individual relationships in and to society† (free dictionary, 2009). The study of social science deals with different aspects of society such as politics, economics, and the social aspects of society. Gender identity is closely interlinked with social science as it is based on an identity of an individual in the society. Sexuality is â€Å"the condition of being characterized and distinguished by sex† (free dictionary, 2009).There are different gender identities such as male, female, gay, lesbian, transgender, and bisexual that exists all around the world. There is inequality in gender identities and dominance of a male regardless of which sexuality they fall under. The males are superior over the females and gays superior over the lesbians, however it different depending on the place and circumstances. This paper will look at the gender roles and s tereotypes, social policy, and homosexuality from a modern and a traditional society perspective.The three different areas will be compared by the two different societies to understand how much changes has occurred and whether or not anything has really changed. In general a traditional society is more conservative where as a modern society is fundamentally liberal. This is to say that a traditional society lists certain roles depending on the gender and there are stereotypes that are connected with the genders. One must obey the one that is dominant and make decisions. On the other hand, a modern society is lenient, It accepts the individual’s identity and sexuality.There is no inequality and everyone in the society is to be seen as individuals not a part of a family unit. Gender roles and stereotypes exist for all genders. These roles are set by the individuals of the society, â€Å"sex roles are expectations for behaviour and attitudes that a particular culture defines as appropriate for men and women† (Whicker and Kronenfeld, 1986; pp. 8). The traditional views of gender roles are indeed quite different from the modern views. The men in society are the bread-winners where as the women take care of the children and home.There are basic and common work roles, however in terms of behaviour and involvement there are gender role distinctions. The sex roles generally play out in modern society as well, some sex roles and stereotypes for girls are that they are â€Å"nonaggressive, nonathletic, emotionally expressive, tender, domestic, and nurturing. Boys on the other hand are â€Å"aggressive, value achievement, attain goals through conflict, and work towards monetary success† (Whicker and Kronenfeld, 1986; pp. 8).The males in the society are â€Å"emotionally anesthetised, aggressive, physically tough and daring, unwilling or unable to give nurturance to a child† (Lewis and Sussman, 1986; pp. 1). These traits are carried out by this particular gender mostly outside the society to demonstrate their strength. Those individuals who ignore to carry out these personality traits are seen as weak and unmanly. The women on the other hand are given the responsibility of looking after the family and are supposed to have the opposite personality traits.For instance a woman can show emotions but not outside of the family because of the shame that would bring to the family. This also an issue because a husband cannot help the women out otherwise the society will look down upon him, and as for society itself women cannot rely on outsiders. This brings about a question as to whom should she reveal her emotions and feelings to? These gender stereotypes such as a men being physically stronger or women being physically weak are embedded in the individual’s mind and thus they carry out these stereotypes themselves thereby continuing the stereotype.The gender role differences bring up a point about fake identity and practi ce. For the purpose of being accepted in society one hides his or her inner desires and emotions in order to fit in society. One does not need to be tough to show masculinity neither does one need to be weak to bring out her feelings. However, society changes when the men in the society gradually developed more female traits and get involved in the family matters. The role that impacts the family the most is the role of the men.The media plays a huge role in shaping the role of what a father is. Once the father used to be a bread-winner, now the roles can switch and the mother can go out to work and the father can stay with the children. The media demonstrates the idea of the father who spends his time at home with the children, baby sitting, cooking, and cleaning. This new image encourages and motives the men in this society to get involved and help their family. Also, the family is no longer always ruled by a patriarchal system.Patriarchy is â€Å"a system promotion the higher st atus and privilege of men against women† (Lewis and Sussman, 1986; pp. 17). The roles are either balanced or a matriarchy system is also involved where the women are the superior ones in the family. The society’s acceptance of these roles changes and also it gives opportunity to the opposite sex to prove their skills and identity in the society and within their family, however, the society’s expectations do not end here. The men are portrayed as strong body-builders and females are portrayed as slim beauties.These images are carried by the media where in the film â€Å"Tough guise† by Jackson Katz, the movie demonstrates the transition of masculinity from past generation to current generation. The men are more build up in terms of body structure compared to the past. Although the father might be involved in the family, the sex roles of the genders do not vanish, they make gradual transitions from generation to generation. The traditional society simply bel ieves that women stay at home and focus on their private life rather than the outside world. The major role is played by the adult males who maintain the finances.Women’s work is not as valued as the men’s, however it is essential to understand that men would have had to do double job if the women were not looking after his children and home. Although both, the inside and the outside work required a lot of effort, the dominance of the male gender rules over the female gender in terms of the value of work. Besides the cultural values, religion also played a role in shaping these ideologies. â€Å"Religious institutions have long been conservative in their ideals and patriarchs. Recent exceptions do exist, such as the increasing enrolment of women in Protestant seminaries.The Church however, like the corporate America, maintains the image of a traditional family and career structure, where the husband is the major bread-winner and thus the head if the household and his wife is in a supportive, expressive position† (Lewis and Sussman, 1986; pp 199). These religious institutions drew the images of gender roles inside and outside of the house, where one gender worked inside and the other worked outside and even if the women decided to work outside were treated unequally. At the end of the day they had to look after their children.This brings about a question of whether the children only belonged to the mothers or both parents. What role do the fathers play in the lives of their children? There is no social support for the women in this society to rely on, thus they struggle to maintain their rough lifestyle. The family only becomes dependent on the men, which is problematic. In case of a single parent, where the children are dependent on a mother it becomes a financial problem. The lack of government involvement is a disadvantage for the women in this society because those who are divorced or lost their husbands are strongly hit by poverty.Soci al policy such as education, career, and welfare state did not exist in the life a woman in a traditional society. However, as the world gradually developed in terms of technology, the women caught up to the men. The ideology of individuals in the modern society changed where the women were once seen an item in the household, they now gained a sense of freedom. To being with the basic understanding of a woman going in to work is that â€Å"most women work because of economic need. The majority of employed females are single, widowed, divorced or separated, or working to supplement the low income of their spouse† (Kendrigan, 1991; pp 91).This is not to say that women spend time at working leaving their children, spouse, or home alone. Their life in modern society is challenging because there is more responsibility on their shoulders. Not only do women have their work life but also their family life as well. As a plus, the government provides day care for working women in order to make their lives easier. Looking at the correlation of women and the workforce has a great impact on the economic factors of the country and state. The women contribute to the social welfare state because the more people working in the country the more stable and stronger the economy gets.For instance, in Canada women who contribute to the country economy through paying taxes add on to the government public funds, which are used for education, welfare, and the publish health care system. There are many advantages for the women as well as the state. Although there remains to be an inequality in the salary of woman when compared to a man it is importance to focus on the progress as well. The transformation occurred because women stepped out of their homes and stepped in to the working world. They still have to work hard to gain their respect and work for equality among men.Genders and sexuality cannot leave homosexuality behind, however this is not so true for the traditional soci ety. Just because homosexuals, bisexuals, and transgender were not seen very often does not mean they were invisible. The reactions of individuals in the society to these particular sexes lead the homosexuals, transgender, and bisexual being seen as inferior. This brings about the ideology of superior over inferior. There is a sense of shame attached to these sexes, where they cannot freely express their identity. To reveal their identity means going through the consequences set by the ndividuals in the society and in some countries even the government. Even though much emphasis is given to sex roles in homosexuality as well there lies a difference among lesbians and gays. Looking back at the roles of the boys and adult males in a traditional society they had to stay strong and stay focused on work. This becomes an issue for the gay individuals. Unlike lesbians, gays cannot freely walk with their partners without being noticed. â€Å"women can hold hands in the street, and even go arm in arm; because families let girls sleep with their girlfriends, but for boys, it’s forbidden† (Likosky, 1992; pp. 3). It is indeed difficult for the homosexuals to express their homosexuality because of the norms set by society. Women can get away with it because of the friendly and nurturing stereotype that the society has placed upon them. â€Å"Homosexuality, though, exists in different societies and cultures, with some minor exceptions are considered abnormal and disdained. It affects social order, invades personal privacy and rights, and leads to criminal behaviour. â€Å"As a result, homosexuals are more likely to encounter and be penalized administratively and criminally† (Likosky, 1992, pp. 38).More stereotypes are attached to these individuals because they are not considered normal. Normal in this sense means that heterosexuals are the dominating ones in the society. The idea that these individuals are embedded in society not only causes prejudice towards homosexual people but also discrimination against them, leading to violent actions are taken towards them. Once again religion and government plays a major role in shaping these views towards these particular groups of people. To look at homosexuality from a modern point of view, it is not the same as the traditional.However this is not to say that there is great equality between the heterosexuals and homosexuals, because this is simply untrue. The modern society takes the idea equality and freedom from the liberal ideology. However it is not practiced to the full extent. The flaw in the liberal state is made in the legal forms when gender is asked for. The option to this question is already stated on the paper, thus the two options given to the homosexuals are â€Å"male† or â€Å"female†. The problem lies in these two options for these individuals, because now they cannot reveal their identity, neither can they state who they are.However if they are to pick f rom the two options how are they to answer this question? Is it more based on how they feel the most? Even though the individuals in the modern society consider themselves to be liberal, they are not fully liberal. On the positive side of the modern society, there are social services. â€Å"There has been a long history of people in social work who challenge the heterosexist norms of society. Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgendered and transsexual persons have enriched society as a whole† (Hick, 2010; pp. 02). Social work plays a major role in reshaping these sexes and their roles. The social workers empower the LGBTTQ (Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, transsexual, and queer) to get involved in work force. This gives the individuals chances to prove themselves and also it benefits the society and economy. The more people that get involved in the workforce the stronger the economy turns out to be. The involvement of these individuals brings changes to the society and they feel accepted outside of their own group.If they were to hide their sexuality inside as done in the traditional society there would be psychological and emotional problems among these people, and the outcome would be higher rate of suicide. The acceptance and opportunity given to them by this society not only gives advantage to these people but also to the society and the economy of the state. In the traditional society the father’s only focus is on earning an income for the family which has a direct impact on the family members due to the lack of time spent bonding with his children and wife.The responsibility of the children falls on both parents’ shoulders not just on the mothers. However this is also an issue in modern society, if mothers rely too much on day-cares and do not spend enough time with their children then the same thing that happens to the father happens to the mother. The traditional view of sex roles differ where women are nurturing, home orien ted and calm. On the other hand, men are seen as the opposite. Nevertheless, the modern view does not distinct these differences because of the greater involvement of the father in the family.The differences do not lie among the genders but the perspective of the individuals in society, both genders can contribute to each other’s works regardless of what sex they fall under. The society, religious institute, and media play a greater role in shaping these sex roles. The gradual changes are closely related to the media because the actors carry out the roles and thus the members of the society play out those roles in their daily life style. â€Å"Homosexuality exists in different societies and cultures and with some minor exceptions it is considered abnormal and disdained.It affects social order, invades personal privacy and rights, and leads to criminal behaviour. As a result, homosexuals are more likely to encounter and be penalized administratively and criminally† (Lik osky, 1992, pp. 38) Also, the two societies view homosexuality different. Nevertheless modern society has not completely accepted the idea of homosexuality because in areas such as legal forms, the people with nonconventional sexual orientation are not shown. This demonstrates the inferiority of homosexuality and for which the government is responsible for such actions.

Culture And Crime Essay

The crime rate of societies differs with each other. If the crime rates of European countries and American countries were compared, the results would be different. The same is true if countries from the East and West were compared in regards to their crime rates. This can be attributed perhaps to different norms and concepts on crime of different societies, as well as the overall way of life of the people in any given area. If this were analyzed further, it will be noted that culture plays a role in the way that crime is viewed in a given society. This essay deals with the concept of culture, especially in the way that it relates to crime. Culture, Society and Criminality Before juxtaposing crime and culture, however, it would be necessary to define the overly used and abused concept of culture. Generally, culture is the overall pattern of the way of life of a given community of people together with the structures of symbols and meanings that they attach to various aspects of their society. This also includes the morality of the society as well as the collection of acceptable and non-acceptable behaviors (Krober & Kluckhohn, 1952). Since the moral system is included here, it impinges upon the conception of what is right, as well as the way that people in a given society view law, together with the commission of crimes. Given that culture affects the overall lifestyle of peoples in a society, it is inevitable that crimes are also affected by culture. For example, in a study conducted by Karstedt (2001), she mentioned that culture has been recognized by criminology as one of the factors influencing crime. The study took note of various social control means in Asian countries with low crime rate such as Japan. Karstedt called for the introduction of methods and ways through which cultures may be effectively compared to study the differences in culture and its impact on crime. By conducting an extensive survey in one of the Southern States in the US, Warner (2003) found out that cultural disorganization affect crimes. Her findings show that a prevailing culture conditioned by disadvantage in the society and the disconnection of social ties have significant impact on the level of social relationships and ties of the community. This in turn impacts informal modes of social control in the society. Without these informal social control, it would the tendency for crimes to be committed becomes stronger. On the other hand, Leonardsen (2002) investigated the apparent anomaly of Japan—an urban country with very low crime rate. In his study, Leonardsen pointed out to apparent loss of too much individualism in Japan while focusing on the overall community. He argued that although the loss of individuality can be seen in Japan, it has much to teach to Western countries, especially regarding identity, obligations and social connections. Conclusion Based on the studies mentioned above, it can be seen that indeed culture has a significant impact on crime. Crime cannot only be prevented through formal means such as law, police force, and the prison system. Rather, there are informal institutions and norms that help prevent or perhaps encourage the occurrence of crime. When social ties are severed and a â€Å"negative† culture of the disadvantaged spawns, social controls are weakened, thus increasing the likelihood of the occurrence of crime. A focus on the community’s norms, however, can result to a more orderly society with low incidence of crime. These studies are congruent with Black’s theory that if the culture and the means of informal social control in a society are weak, then the tendency for that society is to have laws that are more powerful as compared with other societies with stronger social control means (Black, 1976). A combination of effective laws and informal social controls, are however necessary so that order can be kept within the society. Reference Black, D. (1976). The Behavior of Law. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Karstedt, S. (2001). Comparing Cultures, Comparing Crime: Challenges, Prospects and Problems for a Global Criminology. Crime, Law and Social Change, 36 (3), 285-308. Kroeber, A. L. & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum. Leonardsen, D. (2002). The Impossible Case of Japan. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 35 (2), 203-229. Warner, B. D. (2003). The Role of Attenuated Culture in Social Disorganization Theory. Criminology, 41 (1), 73-98.